'S'^ 


Queries  with  Answers 


.UPON. 


Agricultural  and  Horticultural 
Subjects. 


By 

Burnet  Landreth, 


Foreign  Member  of  ike  Agricultural  Societies  of  Japan,  Chile,  Mexico,  France, 

Horticultural  of  London,  Society  of  Arts,  London, 

Acclimatization  of  Brazil,  L'  Academic  Royale  de  Suede, 

Chevalier  and  Ojfficier  du  Merite  Agricole  de  France. 


PUBLISHED   BY 


DAVID  LANDRETH  &  SONS, 

Seed  Fanners  and  Merchants, 

Established  1784,^ 

PHILADELPHIA. 


COPYRIGHT,    1895. 


Philadelphia  : 

Press  of  MacCalla  <&  Company  Incorporated, 

237-9  dock  street. 


r»  A 


w 

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^m 

HESE  999  QUESTIOJ^S 

represent  only  a  small  portion  of  the  Queries 
which  have  been  sent  to  the  firm  of  the 
author,  and  which  have  presented  them- 
selves to  practical  minds,  dwelling  upon -the 
subjects  of  field  work  connected  with  agri- 
culture and  horticulture,  more  particularly  in  the  special  branch 
of  Vegetable  Gardening. 

Among  farmers  and  gardeners  not  enough  thought  is  given 
to  the  why  and  wherefore,  or  cause  and  efi"ect,  for,  as  a  rule,  they 
go  on  year  after  year  without  profiting  by  the  personal  opportu- 
nities afforded  them  of  observation,  or  by  the  results  of  experi- 
ments at  scientific  stations.  Every  year  a  new  series  of  cultiva- 
tors, both  of  farm  and  garden,  spring  into  existence,  few  of  them 
profiting  by,  few  indeed  knowing  anything  about,  the  experiences 
of  their  predecessors. 

With  rare  exceptions  the  young  farmer  and  gardener  does 
not  take  up  his  work  from  the  scientific  side,  but  strictly  from 
the  laborer's  side ;  and  he  begins  at  the  bottom,  meeting  the  same 
difficulties  as  did  his  father  and  too  often  not  acquiring  informa- 
tion beyond  what  his  father  possessed. 

This  should  not  be  ;  agriculture  should  be  taught  in  all  our 
public  schools  of  country  districts,  as  it  has  been  taught  for  years 
in  Germany  and  Austria.  It  should  be  elevated  as  an  art ;  in 
its  higher  estate  it  already  is  an  art.  No  pursuit  possesses  a 
greater  scope  for  development ;  the  field  is  almost  unoccupied  by 
leaders,  scientific  and  practical. 

Since  this  Book  has  gone  to  press,  many  more  Queries 
have  been  presented,  and  they,  with  others,  will  be  compre- 
hended in  a  second  Volume,  now  being  prepared,  to  be  issued  a 
year  hence,  which  will  comprise  over  1000  additional  Queries. 

The  Author  asks  readers  to  send  him  at  once,  and  any  time 
hereafter,  additional  questions  that  he  may  answer  them,  the 
responses  subsequently  to  be  embodied  in  the  second  volume. 


999  QUERIES  AND  ANSWERS. 

.   . SELECTED  FROM  •    . 

Landreths'  Inquiry  Book, 


Many  of  the  inquiries  made  of  the  Seed  Merchant  by  amateurs  and 
practical  gardeners  are  very  difficult  to  answer,  as  they  arise  from  the 
varied  thought  and  experience  of  the  inquirers,  the  outgrowth  of 
every  physical  diversity  of  soil,  climate  and  condition,  as  well  as  from 
the  temperament  and  mood  of  the  writers. 

Out  of  the  many  thousands  of  queries  made  of  us  there  may  be 
selected  a  few  from  our  Inquiry  Book  which  it  may  be  practical  to 
repeat,  with  the  responses  made,  as  they  may  meet  a  need  for  similar 
information  for  some  of  the  readers  of  this  volume.  They  might  be 
better  grouped  or  classified,  but  are  printed  just  as  they  have  been 
recorded. 

Keaders  of  this  book  may  not  in  all  things  agree  with  the  answers 
made ;  that  is  their  privilege,  as  many  queries  are  subject  to  different 
interpretations.  The  book  is  not  published  for  the  scientific,  nor  for 
those  who  already  know  it  all  before  they  read  it. 

1.  Query.  What  is  the  distinction  between  a  fruit  and  a  vegetable?        pruit  or 
Answer.  In  a  physiological  sense  a  fruit  is  borne  upon  a  flower  stem  vegetable. 

and  is  a  growth  following  the  development  of  a  flower,  and,  except  under 
abortive  conditions  or  failing  of  pollination,  containing  within  itself  or 
upon  itself  the  seeds  for  the  perpetuation  of  its  species.  Perhaps,  to  meet 
a  popular  understanding,  a  ready  definition  of  a  fruit  might  be  an  edible 
growth  upon  a  tree  or  bush,  containing  seeds  and  having  a  sweet  or  sour 
flavor. 

2.  Q.  If  a  fruit  is  a  consequential  development  of  inflorescence  and  con-  Nuts, 
tains  a  seed,  is  a  nut  a  fruit  ? 

A.  A  nut  or  hard-shelled  seed,  if  contained  within  a  pulpy  envelope, 
is,  with  its  covering,  a  fruit  under  the  previous  definition  ;  but  under  the 
usual  understanding  a  fruit  must  be  an  accumulation  of  soft,  pulpy 
tissue.     Some  nuts — as  the  cocoanut,  the  walnut  and  the  hickory — are 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS. 


Grains. 


Culinary 
Vegetables. 


Bulbs. 


Tubers. 


Offsets. 


Broccoli. 


Cow  Pea. 


Wlieat. 


enclosed  in  a  thick  tissue  of  growth,  but  the  enveloping  material  is  unpal- 
atable and  indigestible.  In  the  case  of  nut-bearing  plants  of  habits  fixed 
through  original  conditions  or  through  selection  based  upon  hereditary 
development,  the  seed  or  nut  is  developed  at  the  expense  of  the  surround- 
ing tissue. 

3.  Q.  "What  is  a  grain  ? 

A.  A  grain  is  a  seed  suitable  for  use  by  man  for  grinding  or  crushing  to 
meal  for  cattle  feeding  or  human  food. 

4.  Q.  "What  is  a  culinary  vegetable  ? 

A.  It  is  a  plant  producing,  above  or  below  ground,  a  development  of 
edible  tissue,  as  the  bulb  of  a  turnip,  the  enlarged  stalk  of  a  kohl  rabi, 
the  head  of  a  cabbage,  or  the  half-abortive  or  abnormally  developed  buds 
of  the  cauliflower.  A  culinary  vegetable  generally  requires  cooking  to 
fit  it  for  human  food,  but  not  always,  as  exampled  in  the  radish,  lettuce, 
cress.  A  culinary  vegetable  in  the  exact  sense  cannot  contain  seeds,  as 
it  is  a  product  developed  previous  to  inflorescence. 

5.  Q.  "What  is  a  bulb  ? 

A.  It  is  an  underground  bud  containing  within  itself  a  capacity  for 
reproducing  its  kind.  It  is  generally  globular  in  form  and  is  composed 
of  scales  or  coats,  one  within  another,  familiar  examples  being  the  onion 
and  hyacinth. 

6.  Q.  What  is  a  tuber  ? 

A.  A  tuber  is  a  solid,  fleshy  development  from  a  root  and  containing 
buds  or  eyes  capable  of  producing  its  like ;  a  familiar  example  of  the 
tuber  being  the  potato? 

7.  Q.  "What  are  oflsets  ? 

A.  They  are  young  bulbs  or  bulblets  formed  on  the  sides  of  old  bulbs. 
These  broken  ofl"  produce  full-sized  buds. 

8.  Q.  "What  is  the  distinction  between  broccoli  and  cauliflower? 

A.  Broccoli  usually  has  a  taller  stem  than  cauliflower,  leaves  narrower 
and  stifler,  generally  undulating,  ribs  broad  and  leaf  stalks  long ;  the 
texture  of  the  heads  not  so  fine  nor  so  white  as  cauliflower  ;  the  flower 
head  of  a  stronger  cabbage  taste.  Broccoli  has  an  advantage  over  cauli- 
flower in  greater  hardiness.  It  is  less  rapid  in  growth,  and  generally  the 
plants  are  carried  over  "Winter  to  develop  in  early  Spring.  Broccoli 
should  be  better  known  and  more  largely  cultivated  in  the  northern  sec- 
tions of  the  Union. 

9.  Q.  Is  a  Southern  cow  pea,  a  pea  or  a  bean  ? 

A.  It  is  a  bean  ;  the  outward  and  unscientific  distinction  between 
peas  and  beans  being  that,  as  a  rule,  beans  have  fleshy  edible  pods,  dis- 
tinctly marked  eyes,  smooth  surface  and  of  a  far  greater  variation  of  color 
than  peas. 

10.  Q.  Have  bearded  wheats  any  advantage  over  beardless  sorts  ? 

A.  Bearded  wheats  possess  a  higher  percentage  of  gluten  than  beard- 
less variety,  and  as  gluten  is  the  essentially  nutritive  element,  its  percent- 
age is  a  most  important  matter.    The  people  of  new  wheat  countries,  aa 


QUERIES   AND  ANSWERS.  o 

our  Northwestern  States,  the  new  lands  of  the  La  Platte  and  Australia, 
are  generally  tall  and  muscular,  which  physical  condition  is  attributed  to 
the  richer  glutenous  wheat  grown  on  new  lands. 

11.  Q.  What  advantage  is  there  in  the  growing  of  early  wheats  over  wheat, 
late  wheats  ? 

A,  Early  wheats  are  desirable  as  their  habit  more  quickly  removes 
them  from  the  danger  of  red  rust. 

12.  Q.  What  is  pollen  ?  PoUen. 
A.  It  is  the  fertilizing  agent  of  plants,  consisting  of  a  yellow  powder 

formed  of  cells  of  from  ^^^  to  j-^j^  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  each  containing 
minute  granules  from  y^^ij  ^^  au^o^  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  These  minute 
granules  produced  by  the  stamens  must  be  brought  in  contact  with  the 
pistil,  and  one  or  more  pass  into  and  through  it  till  it  reaches  the  base  of 
the  pistil.  The  pollen  reaches  the  pistil  by  various  means,  as  by  the  vio- 
lent bursting  of  the  stamens,  by  currents  of  air  and  by  insects.  The 
length  of  time  over  which  the  pollen  of  ordinary  plants  retains  its  vitality 
varies  from  a  few  hours  to  many  days,  with  a  number  of  plants  for  many 
months,  and  with  a  few  plants  for  many  years.  The  quantity  of  pollen 
produced  is  enormous,  the  sulphur  showers  from  pine  forests  consisting 
of  pollen.     Some  plants  producing  250,000  grains  to  the  single  flower. 

13.  Q.  "What  vegetables  will  mix,  if  planted  in  proximity?  °ti^n*"^*" 
A.  Only  those  of  the  same  family,  as  for  example,  beans  with  beans. 

It  is  impossible  to  mix  beans  with  peas,  or  squashes  with  tomatoes.  Some 
vegetables  looked  upon  as  distinct,  as  for  example,  watermelon,  can- 
taloupe, squashes,  cucumber,  pumpkin  and  gourds,  are  all  of  one  family, 
and  will  mix  one  with  the  other. 

14.  Q.  Will  round-podded   peas  stand  more  cold,  wet  weather    than  Peas. 
wrinkled  peas  ? 

A.  Yes.  Wrinkled  peas,  which  are  soft,  are  seldom  ripened  with  the 
same  completeness  as  round  peas,  which  are  hard,  and  they  are  more 
likely  to  decay  under  the  same  soil  conditions — decomposition  setting  in 
earlier — in  fact,  they  have  less  vitality  and  less  physical  vigor. 

15.  Q.  What  is  a  gourd  ?  Gourd. 
A.  Scientifically,  it  may  be  defined  as  a  member  of  that  family  from 

■which  has  sprung  all  the  varieties  of  squashes  and  pumpkins,  which 
edible  fruits  are  yet  comprised  in  the  same  general  classification  with 
many  which  are  unedible.  The  edible  varieties  are  those  botanically 
indicated  as  maxima,  mochata  and  pepo  ;  the  first  having  stalks  round, 
■without  furrows,  and  with  foliage  large,  broad,  kidney-shaped,  and 
covered  with  hairs  ;  examples,  Valparaiso,  Hubbard,  Mammoth.  The 
second  with  stalks  slightly  furrowed,  swollen  where  they  join  the  fruit, 
leaves  lobed  or  angular,  deeply  indented  and  bloated  with  air  bubbles, 
seeds  hairy  and  covered  with  a  silvery  membrane  ;  examples,  Canada 
Crookneck,  Yokohama.  The  third  with  stalks  alender,  fruit  stems  five- 
sided  and  becoming  woody,  foliage  deeply  indented  and  hairy  ;  examples, 
White  Bush,  Vegetable  Marrow,  Cococella,  Tours.     The  unedible  varie- 


4  QUERIES   AND  ANSWERS. 

ties  to  which  custom  attaches  the  name  of  gourd  have  a  hard,  woody,  dry 
shell  and  a  flavor  so  bitter  as  to  render  them  unedible. 

Potatoes.  16.  Q.  Is  the  Irish  potato  a  native  of  Ireland  ? 

A.  No  !  It  is  a  native  American,  improperly  called  Irish  because  the 
Irish  people  cultivated  it  to  such  an  extent  at  one  time  as  to  be  the  prin- 
cipal article  of  food.  No  American  should  call  it  Irish.  Its  true  name 
is  the  potato, simply  the  potato,  be  it  white,  yellow  or  red,  round  or  oblong. 
The  sweet  potato  is  not  a  potato  at  all  ;  it  is  called  so  through  an  errone- 
ous custom. 

SweetPotato.     17.  Q.  If  the  sweet  potato  is  not  a  potato,  what  is  it  ? 

A.  It  belongs  to  the  same  race  or  family  as  the  yam,  which  family  is 
not  native  to  America,  but  is  found  in  Africa  and  India. 

-^ij,i  18.  Q.  Can  good  potatoes  be  developed  from  the  wild  sorts  of  Arizona 

Potatoes.        and  Mexico  ? 

A.  Yes,  the  writer  developed  several  fine  sorts  after  four  years'  culture 
and  selection,  unfortunately  losing  them  by  frost  during  winter. 

Potatoe  ^^'  ^"  ^^^  long  will  it  take  to  develop  edible-sized  potatoes  from  the 

from  the  true  seed  ball  ? 

seed.  A.  About  three  years.     Of  course  it  is  all  a  speculation,  for  nineteen 

out  of  twenty  of  the  seedlings  are  inferior  to  present  standard  sorts, 
those  of  good  form  and  quality  being  like  prizes  in  a  lottery  ;  but  when 
they  are  good  they  often  pay  handsomely. 

Potatoes,  Size     20.  Q,  Which  size  seed  potatoes  produce  best  results  all  things  consid- 

for  Planting.  Qred  ? 

A.  Medium  size  cut  into  halves. 

Cutting  21.  Q.  If  my  potatoes  for  planting  are  all  large  size,  how  small  should 

Potatoes.        I  cut  them  ? 

A.  None  smaller  than  a  black  walnut. 

Potato  Skins.     23.  Q.  Why  are  the  skins  of  my  potatoes  eaten  and  scaly  ? 

A.  Sometimes  from  worms,  which  lime  will  drive  off.  Sometimes  from 
excessive  moisture  bursting  the  skins,  which  nature  attempting  to  repair 
results  in  scales. 

Bermudas.         23.  Q.  Why  are  Bermuda  potatoes  always  smoothskinned  ? 

A.  Because  grown  on  coral  or  lime  soil,  and  because  largely  fertilized 
with  sea  weed,  the  salt  and  lime  both  being  obnoxious  to  insects. 

Potato  Seed.  The  potato,  as  ordinarily  propagated,  is  not  grown  from  the  seed,  but 
from  the  tuber,  a  cutting  of  which  resembles  a  graft  or  bud  from  a  tree, 
and  perpetuates  the  good  or  bad  qualities  of  the  parent.  The  true  seed, 
which  is  borne  in  a  seed-pod  following  the  blossom,  is  very  seldom  seen, 
is  very  difficult  to  gather,  and  consequently  is  very  expensive.  In  ap- 
pearance resembles  a  tomato  seed  of  about  one-tenth  development  ;  the 
potato  belonging  to  the  tomato  family.  The  seed  germinates  very  easily, 
and  the  plants  can  be  cultivated  by  any  one,  producing  tubers  the  first 
year  about  the  size  of  buckshot ;  these,  planted  the  second  year,  double  in 
bulk,  and  after  about  three  or  four  years,  become  of  edible  size.  As  en- 
tirely new  sorts  are  thus  produced,  the  cultivation  is  very  interesting  and 
often  profitable.     Per  pkt.  30c. 


QUERIES  AND   ANSWERS.  5 

We  here  record  our  protest  against  the  expression  "Irish  potatoes"  as 
applied  to  any  of  the  many  forms  of  round  or  kidney  potatoes,  the  plant 
being  a  native  American,  found  growing  wild  from  Arizona  to  Chili, 

New  varieties  of  potatoes  are  alone  derived  from  the  true  seed,  which  is 
obtained  from  the  seed  balls  ;  these  seed  balls  are  generally  borne  upon 
late  varieties.  The  development  of  new  varieties  of  valuable  qualities  is 
tiresome  and  disappointing,  as  often  ten  years  of  labor  may  not  bring  a 
single  truly  valuable  sort.  It  is,  however,  a  matter  of  chance,  and  the 
first  experiment  may  develop  a  novelty  of  the  highest  merit. 

24.  Q.  What  is  the  product  of  cucumbers?  Cucumbers. 
A.  For  early  use  plant  in  hills  4x4  feet,  on  a  warm  border,  when  the 

cherry  is  in  bloom,  and  for  a  succession  sow  in  drills  at  five  feet,  when  the 
apple  is  in  bloom.     For  pickles  plant  middle  of  Summer. 

In  Florida  and  other  Southern  States,  a  fair  average  production  per 
acre  of  slicing  cucumbers  is  two  hundred  crates,  8x14  x  20  inches.  Some 
growers  claim  average  crops  of  400  and  500 — even  800  crates  have  been 
recorded,  but  these  large  yields  are  only  occasionally  heard  of. 

Fresh  Southern  cucumbers  appear  in  Philadelphia  the  last  of  November, 
and  command  $1  to  $3  per  dozen.  Towards  Christmas  the  price  rises  to 
$2.50  per  dozen,  after  which  the  price  declines  to  $4  or  $5  per  box  of 
eighty-five  to  ninety  fruit.  By  last  of  May  the  price  goes  down  to  $1 
per  dozen,  after  which  shipments  are  unprofitable.  As  a  rule  the  early 
cucumbers  from  New  Orleans  bring  better  prices  than  those  from  Florida, 
being  better  sorted  and  better  packed. 

A  good  crop  of  cucumbers,  when  gathered  of  pickling  size,  produces 
from  100  to  175  bushels  to  the  acre.  A  bushel  contains  about  300 
pickles.  Some  cultivators  have  claimed  to  produce  over  100,000  pickles 
to  the  acre.  The  pickles  should  be  slipped  from  the  vine  by  the  thumb 
and  finger  without  raising  or  disturbing  the  vine.  The  pickle  houses 
generally  pay  the  farmers  forty  to  fifty  cents  per  bushel,  they  in  turn  sell 
them  at  from  twenty  to  thirty  cents  per  100. 

Pickles  properly  prepared  will  keep  five  or  six  years.  The  method  of 
salting  pickles,  as  pursued  in  New  Jersey,  is  as  follows  :  To  a  cask  of  120 
gallons  capacity,  take  four  quarts  of  salt  and  mix  in  two  gallons  of  water. 
Place  the  solution  in  the  bottom  of  the  cask  and  put  in  the  green  pickles 
after  washing.  To  each  two  bushels  of  pickles  put  into  the  cask  add  four 
quarts  of  Salt,  and  continue  until  cask  is  full.  Place  the  head  of  the  cask, 
with  edges  trimmed  off  to  permit  of  a  rise  and  fall,  on  the  top  of  the 
pickles,  and  on  the  top  of  the  head  or  lid  place  a  weight  of  twenty  or 
twenty -five  pounds.  If  there  should  be  any  leakage  of  the  liquor,  replace 
it  by  a  solution  of  four  quarts  of  salt  to  two  gallons  of  water,  keeping  all 
the  pickles  submerged.  Salt  should  not  be  stinted.  Pickle  packers  make 
three  sizes  before  pickling — large,  medium  and  small. 

25.  Q.  What  is  the  form  of  a  Long  Green  Turkey  cucumber?  Turkey 

A.  A  Long  Green  Turkey  cucumber  is  long,  three  square  and  at  the  stem  Cw«»i"»'*«"' 
end  of  a  reduced  diameter,  the  seed  being  found  principally  in  the  blossom 


6 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS, 


Pickles. 


Cucumber 
Bug. 


White  Spine 
Cucuuiber. 


Slicing. 
Fruiting. 


Cucumber 
Crops. 


Greeniiouse 
Cucunxber. 


end.  In  an  ordinary  "Long  Green"  the  diameter  is  about  the  same 
throughout  its  length,  and  the  seed  found  throughout  a  larger  portion  of 
the  fruit.  The  Long  Green  Turkey  is  a  light  producer  of  seed,  and  conse- 
quently the  seed  is  higher  priced  than  other  field  varieties. 

26.  Q.  "Which  variety  of  cucumber  will  produce  the  most  small  fruits 
for  pickling  ? 

A.  The  Short  Prolific  and  the  Jersey  pickle  for  commercial  sales,  but 
for  domestic  use  the  Long  Green  Turkey  furnishes  the  best  formed  pickles. 

27.  Q.  How  shall  I  secure  myself  against  the  attacks  of  the  cucumber 
or  squash  bug? 

A.  Start  the  plants  in  the  house  or  under  glass,  the  seeds  planted  in 
square  pieces  of  sod  for  readiness  of  removal  to  the  field  when  the  leaves 
become  half  developed. 

28.  Q.  What  is  a  good  White  Spine  cucumber  ? 

A.  It  is  a  leading  sort  both  in  the  private  and  market  garden,  appreci- 
ated by  reason  of  its  strong  healthy  habit  of  vine  and  consequent  produc- 
tiveness, of  deep  green  symmetrical  fruit.  If  of  a  good  strain  the  fruits  are 
in  length  four  or  five  times  their  diameter,  and  nearly  of  the  same  diameter 
throughout  their  entire  length,  slightly  three-sided  and  dotted  with  small 
warts,  from  each  of  which  springs  an  ivory-white  thorn  or  spine,  giving 
the  name  of  White  Spine  to  the  variety.  With  a  few  exceptions  other 
cucumbers  bear  brown  or  black  spines. 

From  the  extreme  or  blossom  end  of  the  white  spine  ten  light-colored 
lines  run  towards  the  stem  end,  these  lines  as  the  fruit  becomes  larger  turn 
bone  white,  sometimes  a  yellow  white,  and  after  the  fruit  becomes  too  old 
for  shipment  the  entire  fruit  becomes  a  bone  white,  tinged  with  a  light 
golden.  . 

As  a  shipping  variety  the  White  Spine  is  highly  prized,  as  it  so  long 
retains  its  green  color,  which,  when  it  does  change,  alters  not  to  a  yellow, 
but  to  a  less  objectionable  white. 

29.  Q.  Which  varieties  of  cucumber  are  the  best  for  slicing? 
A.  White  Spine,  Early  Frame  and  Long  Green. 

30.  Q.  Why  do  some  varieties  of  cucumbers  produce  more  fruit  than 
others  ? 

A.  Because  of  a  more  perfect  formation  of  flowers,  and  a  more  profuse 
distribution  of  pollen. 

31.  Q.  Why  do  vine  crops  as  cucumber  and  melons  produce  larger 
crops  after  a  dry  summer  than  after  a  wet  one  ? 

A.  Because  during  the  flowering  period  throughout  a  dry  summer  the 
pollen  is  freely  carried  from  the  male  flowers  by  winds  and  insects  to  the 
female  flowers,  but  during  a  wet  season  the  pollen  being  made  heavy  by 
moisture  it  remains  on  the  male  flowers  where  it  originates. 

•82.  Q.  In  what  way  do  English  hothouse  cucumbers  diflfer  from  the 
usual  American  outdoor  sorts  ? 

A.  The  forcing-house  varieties,  as  Rabley,  Marquis  of  Lome,  Telegraph, 
are  all  more  than  twice  as  long  as  the  longest  field  varieties,  sometimes 


QUERIES   AND  ANSWERS.  7 

four  times  as  long.  They  contain  very  few  seeds,  and  are  quite  free  from 
that  property  which  to  some  people  is  so  poisonous. 

33.  Q.   How  should  I  plant  cantaloupes  ?  Cantaloupes. 
Cantaloupes  or  citron  melons,  as  they  are  termed  in  Jersey,  do  well 

upon  sod  ground  or  upon  land  prepared  for  planting  by  plowing  down  a 
crop  of  winter  wheat  or  winter  rye,  the  sod  or  grass  aerating  or  lieeping 
loose  the  soil. 

The  seed  is  planted  at  about  corn-seeding  time  or  when  the  apple  is  in 
bloom,  in  hills  about  four  and  a  half  feet  in  each  direction.  Two  shovels- 
ful  of  well-rotted  stable  manure  being  trampled  into  each  hill  and  covered 
with  earth.  The  large  long  melons,  like  the  Reedland  Qiant  and  Casaba, 
are  generally  sold  by  the  hundred  ;  melons  of  the  ordinary  form  and  size 
are  sold  by  the  basket  of  one-half  to  five-eighths  bushel  capacity.  Phila- 
delphia commission  merchants  pay  as  a  highest  price  $1.50  to  $3.00  per 
bushel.  As  an  average  price  forty  to  fifty  cents  per  bushel.  Cantaloupe 
melons  are  frequently  a  drug  in  the  market. 

34.  Q.  Why  do  some  people  use  the  word  musk  melon  (corrupted  to  Mask  Melon. 
mush  melon)  cantaloupe,  nutmeg  and  citron,  as  applied  to  the  same  fam- 
ily of  vine  fruits  ? 

A.  (1).  Musk  melons  as  originally  known  were  long,  large-fruited, 
smooth-skinned,  soft-fleshed,  very  aromatic  and  often  of  a  sickening 
sweetness. 

(3).  Cantaloupes  as  at  first  distinguished  were  large,  rough  and  irreg- 
ular in  form,  often  deeply  ribbed  and  covered  more  or  less  with  warts,  the 
skin  sometimes  slightly  netted,  and  at  other  times  entirely  without  net- 
ting. Cantaloupes  like  musk  melons  are  frequently  inclined  to  crack  at 
the  ends. 

(3).  Citron  melons  are  of  a  later  introduction.  In  form,  they  vary  from 
flat  and  round  to  ovoid,  slightly  ribbed,  generally  netted,  the  flesh  per- 
fumed, the  seed  small. 

The  term  nutmeg  was  originally  applied  to  citron  melons  of  oval  form  Nutmeg, 
slightly  larger  at  one  end  than  the  other,  like  the  nutmeg  of  commerce. 
Among  the  New  Jersey  market  gardeners  the  expression,  cantaloupe  or 
musk  melon,  is  never  used.     They  always  speak  of  citrons. 

35.  Q.  When  should  I  plant  watermelon  seed  ?  Seeding. 
A.  When  the  black  Walnut  is  in  one-inch  leaf,  plant  melons. 

36.  Q.  How  should  I  plant  watermelons  ?  Watermelons 
A.  Watermelons  do  well  upon  sod  ground  or  upon  land  prepared  for  their 

reception  by  plowing  down  a  crop  of  winter  wheat  or  winter  rye,  the  sod 
or  grain  aerating  or  keeping  loose  the  soil.  When  the  apple  is  in  bloom 
the  seed  is  planted  in  hills  at  ten  feet  apart  in  each  direction.  Two  large 
shovelfuls  of  well-rotted  stable  manure  dug  and  trampled  into  each  hill 
and  covered  with  earth. 

The  cultivator  should  be  prepared  with  quite  four  pounds  of  seed  to  the 
acre,  that  he  may  have  a  reserve  for  replanting  in  case  of  destruction  of 
his  plants  by  insect  depredations  or  beating  rains. 


8  QUERIES   AXD  ANSWERS. 

One  vine  alone  to  the  hill  should  be  allowed  to  attain  perfection  ;  with 
four  hundred  and  fifty  hills  to  the  acre,  there  should  be  nine  hundred  first- 
class  melons. 

Philadelphia  commission  merchants  pay  for  prime  melons,  as  a  highest 
price,  forty  dollars  ($40.00)  per  hundred.  As  an  average  price,  ten  dol- 
lars ($10.00)  per  hundred.  They  cease  to  be  profitable  to  the  trucker 
when  bringing  less  than  four  dollars  ($4.00)  per  hundred.  First-class 
melons  are  always  in  demand,  but  the  market  is  frequently  overstocked 
with  small  fruit. 

Much  of  the  melon  seed  offered  throughout  the  country  is  the  product 
of  immature  and  deformed  melons  remaining  in  the  field  after  all  the 
choice  fruit  has  been  selected. 

Watermelon.        37.  Q.  What  constitutes  a  good  watermelon  ? 

A.  If  for  shipping  to  market  the  requirements  seem  to  be  to  obtain  from 
the  acre  the  greatest  number  of  mammoth  melons  of  good  carrying  quality, 
little  regard  being  paid  to  texture  of  flesh,  depth  of  color,  or  flavor,  so  that 
the  flesh  is  solid  and  red.  A  familiar  example  of  a  favorite  shipping 
watermelon  of  only  third-class  quality  is  the  Kolb  Gem. 

If  for  private  or  family  use,  the  mammoth  melons  are  not  desirable,  the 
requirements  then  being  for  those  of  fair  weight,  twenty  to  thirty  pounds, 
flesh  solid  from  centre  to  rind,  the  unedible  portion  being  not  more  than 
one-half  inch  thick  ;  color  of  flesh  red,  flavor  sugary  and  texture  so  granu- 
lated or  crystalline  as  to  melt  away  like  ice  upon  the  tongue.  A  melon 
producing  fruit  of  fibrous  sponge-like  nature,  no  matter  what  its  other 
qualities  maybe,  cannot  be  a  first-class  melon. 

The  Long  Light  Icing,  the  Round  Icing,  Arkansas  Traveler  and  the  Boss 
are  decidedly  the  best  for  the  private  garden. 

Arkansas  The  Arkansas  Traveler  and  the  Boss,  both  because  of  good  size,  of  a  dark 

and  healthy  deep  green  rind,  of  good  carrying  quality,  having  a  rind  like  wood. 

The  Boss        while  inside  no  others  are  so  solid,  so  entirely  edible,  so  deeply  red,  so 
*  crystalline  in  flesh,  and  altogether  so  excellent  in  quality,  are  recognized 
as  the  best  of  all  melons  when  grown  on  soils  strong  enough  to  properly 
develop  their  variety. 

Points  of  a         38.  Q.  What  constitutes  a  good  citron  melon  or  cantaloupe  ? 

good  Citron        A.  A  good  citron  must  in  the  first  place  produce  a  hardy  vine  without 

aielon.  which  healthy  fruit  cannot  be  expected.     The  fruit  in  size  may  be  small 

like  the  Jenny  Lind,  medium  like  the  Acme,  or  mammoth  like  the  Reedland 
Giant,  Black  Paris,  or  White  French,  but  whatever  its  color,  orange,  sal- 
mon, or  green,  it  should  be  thick  fleshed,  juicy,  sweet,  melting  and  leaving 
an  agreeable  flavor  upon  the  palate.  Some  melons,  apparently  of  good 
flavor  at  first,  prove  after  eating  to  be  distasteful.  For  market  purposes  no 
citron  surpasses  the  Annie  Arundel  for  productiveness,  for  good  outside 
appearances,  and  for  edible  qualities. 

Foreign  39.  Q.  Can  seeds  of  foreign  citrons  be  distinguished  from  seeds  of  Ameri- 

Cantalonpes.  can-grown  citrons  ? 

A.  Yes  the  seeds  of  foreign  sorts  are  inclined  to  turn  up  at  one  end, 
like  a  sled,  are  generally  larger  and  nearly  always  more  yellow. 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS.  9 

40.  Q.  To  save  my  Citron  or  Cantaloupes  from  thieves  can  I  ripen  them  Ripening  cit- 
in  the  house  ?  ^^^' 

A.  Yes  ;  often  better  than  in  the  field.  Pull  them  when  fully  grown, 
wash  them,  dry  them,  and  place  them  on  shelves  in  a  dry,  warm  room  ; 
soon  an  aroma  will  fill  the  room  superior  to  that  ever  before  noticed  in  the 
field. 

41.  Q.  Why  is  it  that  my  Montreal  citrons,  grown  in  Pennsylvania,  do  Flavor  of 
not  have  the  same  flavor  as  those  grown  in  Canada?  Melons. 

A.  Because  of  the  distinct  conditions  of  growth.  At  Montreal  the  seed 
is  sown  in  hotbeds,  20th  to  30th  of  March.  When  the  plants  develop  a 
rough  leaf  they  are  potted  and  three  or  four  times  pinched  back  till  about 
the  middle  of  May,  when  they  are  set  out  in  specially  prepared  hotbeds, 
three  (3)  plants  to  a  sash.  The  glass  is  liept  on  till  the  vines  fill  the 
entire  bed,  when  both  the  sash  and  frame  are  removed.  Very  little  water 
is  required,  and  when  applied  it  is  done  without  a  rose,  as  it  has  been 
found  injurious  to  wet  the  leaves. 

42.  Q.  What  is  the  merit  of  the  netting  or  webbing  on  citron  melons?   Netting  on 
A,  Strong  webbing  preserves  a  melon  from  the  disfiguring  efi"ects  of  Citrons. 

abrasion,  thus  fitting  it  to  withstand  transportation  better  than  the  melons 
with  smooth  skins  or  only  partial  webbing.  A  strong  netting  often  indi- 
cates a  good  flavor,  but  it  is  not  the  rule,  for  some  foreign  smooth- 
skinned  melons  are  hard  to  excel. 

43.  Q.  Shall  I  shorten  the  long  shoots  of  my  watermelon  vines  ?  Pinching 
A.  Yes  ;  pinch  them  back,  cut  them  early  before  they  get  long.  Back. 

44.  Q.  Why  do  the  full-grown  vines  of   my  watermelons,  squashes,  Melon  Bag. 
and  citrons  get  yellow  and  die  off? 

A.  From  injury  by  worms  produced  from  the  eggs  of  the  squash  bug 
which  earlier  in  the  season  ate  the  young  seedlings. 

45.  Q.  How  should  an  Orange  watermelon  be  cut  to  the  best  effect  ?       Orange 

A.  About  an  inch  from  each  end  slice  off  a  slab  so  as  to  produce  a  flat  Wat«»"™®  *»"• 
surface  and  set  the  melon  on  end.     With  a  knife,   held  so  that  one 
inch  of  the  blade  only  can  penetrate  the  rind,  cut  down  the  rind  perpen- 
dicularly in  lines  one  inch  apart  from  top  to  bottom  and  pull  it  off,  leav- 
ing standing  the  red  flesh  of  the  interior. 

46.  Q.  What  are  the  rules  for  determining  when  a  watermelon  is  ripe?  Picking 
A.  When  a  watermelon  is  ripe  it  has  lost  to  a  slight  degree  its  lively  Melons. 

green  tint,  appearing  a  little  dull  in  color.  At  the  stem  end  the  curled 
wiry  tendril  has  become  quite  dead.  On  the  earth  side  the  melon  is  well 
bleached  and  has  become  hard  and  woody. 

The  expert  watermelon  picker,  however,  is  not  guided  by  these  out- 
ward signs,  but  relies  upon  the  sound  emitted  from  the  melon  when 
gently  thumped  with  the  back  of  the  nail  of  thumb  or  fingers.  A  green, 
unripe  melon  responding  with  sonorous  noise,  while  a  ripe  one,  because 
of  the  spongy  nature  of  the  interior,  sounds  dull  and  heavy.  Practice 
will  soon  make  clear  the  difference  in  sound. 


10 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS. 


Radish.  47.  Q.  Why  do  my  radish  roots  become  rough  and  scaly  ? 

A.  "Want  of  lime  to  drive  off  worms  and  grubs. 
Tomatoes.  43.  Q.  How  and  when  should  Tomato  seed  be  planted  ? 

A.  "When  the  apple  is  in  bloom  sow  in  hills  three  feet  apart,  on  a  warm 
border,  early  in  the  Spring.  For  a  later  supply,  sow  a  short  time  after- 
wards in  a  more  open  situation.  As  the  plants  advance  in  growth  sup- 
port them  by  brushwood.  To  have  the  tomato  very  early  it  is  necessary 
to  start  the  plants  in  a  hotbed,  or  they  may  be  reared  in  a  flower-pot  in  a 
window  and  subsequently  transplanted. 

Plants  for  an  early  crop  should  be  raised  under  glass.  For  intermedi- 
ate crop  they  may  be  raised  on  outside  beds.  For  late  crops  the  seed  may 
be  planted  in  permanent  position  when  the  apple  is  in  bloom.  The  aver- 
age production  of  fruit  per  acre  on  cultivated  and  fertilized  land  is  about 
14,000  pounds,  or  say  250  bushels  per  acre,  though  18,000  or  30,000 
pounds  have  been  raised. 

Southern  Florida  tomatoes  reach  Philadelphia  in  February,  and  com- 
mand $4  to  $6  per  bushel.  By  April  the  rate  declines  to  $3  to  $5,  and 
continues  to  decline  till  June,  after  which  they  fail  to  meet  the  cost  of 
transportation.  Forty  to  eighty  cents  per  bushel  is  an  average  price, 
twenty-five  to  thirty-five  cents  per  bushel  for  late  crops.  This  crop  ceases 
to  be  profitable  to  the  trucker  unless  he  can  realize  sixteen  cents  per 
bushel.  They  are  very  often  a  drug  in  the  market.  Tomato  canning 
houses  buy  the  fruit  by  the  ton  at  from  $6  to  $7.  For  seed  purposes  alone 
we  have  washed  out  over  40,000  bushels  of  fruit  iu  a  single  season. 
Bough  Sorts.  49.  Q,  Why  is  it  that  the  rough-fruited  tomatoes.  Early  Jersey  and 
Richmond,  are  largely  grown  ? 

A.  Because  of  their  double  qualities  of  earliness  and  resistance  against 
transportation  injuries. 

By  their  earliness  they  are  often  more  profitable  than  far  better  sorts 
subsequently  put  into  market,  and  by  reason  of  their  hollow  cells  they 
will  stand  almost  any  amount  of  rough  usage  without  bursting. 

50.  Q.  Why  do  my  tomatoes  fail  to  produce  either  blossom  or  fruit  ? 
A.  Possibly  by  reason  of  the  land  being  too  richly  manured  or  too 

much  shaded. 

51.  Q.  Why  do  my  tomatoes  rot? 

A.  Possibly  because  of  a  fungus  growth  for  which  no  positive  remedy 
has  been  discovered.     Some  varieties  are  especially  susceptible  to  it. 
Spinach.  ^2.  Q.  Describe  the  diflference  between  varieties  of  spinach  ? 

A.  The  Bloomsdale  is  the  earliest  to  develop  plants  of  cutting  size.  Its 
leaves  are  entirely  savoyed  or  bloated  and  it  is  accordingly  the  most 
elastic,  bearing  transportation  better  than  any  other  sort.  It  is  quite  erect 
in  habit,  and  in  Spring  shoots  the  earliest  to  seed.  It  is  most  valuable  as 
an  Autumn  variety,  being  hardier  than  other  sorts.     The  seed  is  round. 

Prickly  spinach  has  thorny  seeds  and  is  the  second  to  develop  to  mar- 
ket size.    The  leaves  are  quite  erect  and  elastic,  somewhat  similar  to 


UnCroitful 
Vine. 


Tomato  Rot. 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS.  11 

Bloomsdale.     It  is  an  excellent  variety.     The  seed  is  thorny,  hence  its 
name. 

Ever  Ready  is  the  darkest  colored  of  all  spinaches  and  slowest  to  shoot 
to  seed  ;  it  is  the  best  of  the  Long  Standing  sorts. 

Flanders  is  the  largest  seeded  of  all  the  varieties.  Leaves,  spear- 
shaped,  on  long,  erect  stems  ;  it  can  thus  be  gathered  generally  free 
from  sand  ;  it  is  the  third  in  order  of  maturity.  Round  Savoy  is 
round  seeded  and  round  leaved,  habit  of  growth  not  as  erect  as  Blooms- 
dale,  and  not  so  much  savoyed,  the  fourth  in  order  of  development  to 
cutting  size. 

Viroflay,  a  mammoth-leaved  variety,  very  showy,  the  fifth  in  order  of 
maturity.  Long  Standing,  the  latest  of  all  spinach  to  arrive  at  a  cut- 
ting stage  ;  leaves  round  on  the  edges,  exceedingly  deep  green,  leathery, 
inclined  to  lay  flat  on  the  earth,  slow  to  shoot  to  seed,  hence  its  name. 

53.  Q.  When  should  cabbage  seed  be  sown  ?  Cabbage. 

A.  There  is  not  a  month  in  the  year  nor  a  day  in  the  month  when  cab- 
bage is  not  being  sown  in  some  of  the  gardening  sections  of  the  country. 
It  is  therefore  impossible  to  name  periods  for  sowing.  That  must  be  de- 
termined by  the  practice  of  each  section.  In  a  general  way,  however,  it 
may  be  said  that  cabbage  seed  should  be  sown  in  February  for  an  early 
Summer  crop,  and  April  or  May  for  an  Autumn  crop,  and  in  September 
and  October  for  an  early  Spring  crop.  The  seed  is  sown  in  rows  of  a 
foot  apart,  and  after  the  plants  reach  a  height  of  three  or  four  inches  they 
are  pulled  up  and  transplanted  to  permanent  locations,  where  they  are  set 
in  rows  at  three  or  four  feet  and  at  intervals  of  one-and-a-half  to  two  feet 
in  the  row. 

The  question  is  of  frequent  occurrence  :  Why  cannot  private  families 
have  head  cabbage  as  early  as  market  gardeners?  Simply  because  of 
imperfect  culture  and  insufficient  manuring.  To  produce  a  successful 
crop  of  cabbage  the  soil  must  naturally  or  artificially  contain  potash, 
phosphate,  nitrogen.  These  are  all  found  in  good  barnyard  manure  and 
in  some  commercial  fertilizers.  If  these  resources  are  not  available,  the 
potash  can  be  had  in  kainit,  the  phosphoric  acid  in  bone,  or  better,  in 
superphosphate  ;  the  nitrogen  in  dried  blood,  meat  or  fish. 

The  market  gardener  feeds  his  cabbage  crop  without  stint  and  with 
the  rankest  food,  frequently  plows  in  the  manure  in  the  Autumn,  turns  it 
up  in  the  Spring  and  thoroughly  incorporates  it  with  the  soil ;  plants 
early,  cultivates  deeply,  not  simply  tickling  the  surface  with  the  hand- 
hoe,  but  uses  the  plow  and  horse-hoe  ;  that  cannot  always  be  done  in 
small  family  gardens,  but  the  spade  can  be  used,  and  that  is  the  next  best 
thing.  Use  it  freely,  dig  deeply,  and  the  result  will  surprise,  those  who 
have  heretofore  relied  on  the  hoe  alone. 

Cabbages  grown  South  for  shipment  in  the  Spring  sometimes  do  not 
head  uniformly,  the  result  of  checking  by  cold.  The  damage  very  fre- 
quently is  not  apparent  till  the  heading  season,  when  the  crop  appears  to 
be  a  mixture  of  many  sorts,  sqme  plants  shooting  to  seed  ;  fields  of  difier- 


12 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS. 


Club  Root, 


Cabbage. 


Wakefield 
Cabbage. 


ent  ages  and  different  soil  producing  varying  results.  We  recommend 
that  an  entire  crop  should  not  be  planted  at  once,  but  set  out  at  intervals 
of  ten  daj's.  Cabbages  on  heavy  hammock  land  are  more  injured  by  cold 
than  on  lighter  soil. 

Under  good  conditions  and  management  about  eighty  per  cent,  of  the 
plants  in  a  cabbage  field  should,  on  an  average,  produce  marketable 
heads,  though  sometimes  ninety-five  per  cent,  have  been  marketed.  Mar- 
ket gardeners  in  Pliiladelphia,  on  an  average,  realize  a  net  profit  of  about 
one  cent  per  head.  The  pickle  houses  pay  about  $8  per  ton  delivered  at 
their  factories. 

54.  Q.  What  is  the  cause  of  club  root  in  my  cabbage  ? 
A.  A  fungus  growth  superinduced  by  rank  manure  or  by  constantly 

cropping  the  same  land  in  cabbage. 

55.  Q.  Why  do  only  half  my  cabbage  produce  good  heads? 
A.  Not  planted  early  enough.      Given  time  all  cabbages  will  head, 

unless  mongrel  sorts. 

5G.  Q.  What  are  the  qualities  going  to  constitute  a  good  Wakefield 
cabbage  ? 

A.  The  head  should  be  an  obtuse  or  blunt-pointed  cone,  much  the 
greatest  diameter  at  the  base.  The  leaves  should  extend  up  and  above 
the  apex  of  the  head,  to  afford  length  for  a  perfect  folding  over  and  solid 
formation.  The  leaves  should  be  close  set,  smooth,  broad,  even  edged, 
and  dark  and  leathery,  and  the  leaf  stem  should  be  feathered  to  the  joint. 
The  dark  leathery  quality  of  the  leaves  is  indicative  of  hardiness. 

The  stalk  of  a  well-grown  plant  should  be  short,  so  that  the  head 
appears  to  almost  rest  upon  the  earth. 

Early  maturity  and  mammoth  size  are  not  found  united  in  Wakefields 
any  more  than  in  any  other  plants. 

57.  Q.  What  constitutes  a  good  Summer  cabbage  ? 

A.  Heads  half  or  three  quarters  flat,  the  stems  short,  heads  broad,  deep 
and  solid,  leaves  spoon-formed,  color  blue-green  with  marrow-like  veins 
and  completely  crossing  each  other  as  they  fold  down  over  the  head, 
which  in  the  centre  should  be  slightly  rounded. 
Late  Cabbage  58.  Q.  What  are  the  qualities  constituting  a  good  Late  Flat  Dutch 
cabbage  ? 

A.  This  variety  must  be  of  a  vigorous  habit  to  develop  the  size  most 
desired,  the  leaves  must  be  broad,  of  a  metallic  blue  green  color,  slightly 
fluted  on  the  edge  and  folding  clear  over  the  centre  of  the  head,  which 
should  be  broad,  deep  and  flat.  The  color  of  the  leaves  often  indicates  the 
order  of  maturity,  the  light-green  plants  being  early,  the  deepest  blue 
being  late.  There  are  probably  a  dozen  forms  of  Late  Flat  Dutch,  known 
by  as  many  names — all  cannot  be  the  best,  although  some  may  be  called 
Premium,  others  Matchless,  others  Superb. 

59.  Q.  Which  is  the  best  cabbage  for  late  Autumn  planting  in  the 
Southern  States  for  Spring  markets? 

A.  The  varieties  best  adapted  are  those  of  leathery  leaves  and  dark- 


Summer 
Cabbage 


Cabbage  for 
the  South. 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS.  13 

colored  foliage,  as  such  are  the  hardiest.  Among  them  may  be  named. 
Select  Early  Jersey  Wakefield,  Early  Market,  Bloomsdale  Early  Dwarf 
Flat  Dutch.  The  success  attained  depends  however  much  upon  the 
period  of  sowing  the  seed,  the  time  of  setting  out,  the  condition 
of  the  plants  as  set  out,  and  the  condition  of  the  Winter,  as  some- 
times the  influence  of  fluctuations  in  temperatures  develop  an  abnormal 
tendency  in  plants  to  shoot  to  seed.  It  is  a  safe  plan  to  sow  seed  and  to 
set  out  plants  at  difierent  periods. 

60.  Q.  Why  do  not  cabbage  head  ?  Cabbage 
A.  Any  passably  fair  stock  of  cabbage  will  always  head  if  grown  under  ^^^^^^S' 

proper  conditions  as  respects  period  of  planting,  period  of  setting  out,  fer- 
tility of  soil,  and  culture.  The  stock  may  be  of  many  varieties,  early  and 
late,  flat  and  round,  smooth  and  savoyed,  but  they  will  all  form  some  sort 
of  heads  if  given  time,  provided  they  be  not  checked  by  some  soil  condi- 
tion. Collards  or  kale  will  not  head,  nor  hybrids  of  the  same,  nor  mongrel 
stocks  of  cabbage. 

61.  Q.  How  should  peas  be  sown  ?  Peas. 
A.  Peas  are  among  the  first  seeds  that  may  be  sown  at  close  of  Winter, 

frequently  being  planted  before  sharp  frosts  are  fully  over.  The  drilling 
of  peas  may  be  safely  commenced  when  the  peach  is  in  bloom  and  con- 
tinued at  intervals  up  to  within  sixty  days  of  frost  for  the  early  kinds,  or 
seventy  days  for  the  intermediate  varieties,  or  eighty  days  for  the  later 
sorts.  Late  sown  peas  are  never  as  productive  as  those  sown  in  the  Spring, 
and  often  are  found  to  be  subject  to  mildew.  Landreths'  Extra  Early  will 
be  found  to  be  the  best  for  August  and  September  sowings,  because  of  its 
early  ripening  habit  and  its  ability  to  resist  mildew.  The  dwarf  varieties 
may  be  drilled  at  two  feet  if  cultivated  by  horse  power,  or  fifteen  inches 
if  to  be  hoed  by  hand.  The  varieties  of  medium  length  should  be  drilled 
not  closer  than  three  feet,  and  the  tall-growing  sorts  at  five  feet  apart. 
The  number  of  peas  in  a  row  may  vary  from  ten  to  the  foot  in  the  case  of 
the  very  dwarf  kinds,  to  eight  to  the  foot  of  the  medium  tall  varieties,  and 
six  to  the  foot  of  the  very  tall  kinds.  Yield  100  to  300  bushels.  At  Phil- 
adelphia the  highest  average  price  paid  by  commission  merchants  for 
early  peas  is  from  $3.00  to  $4.00  per  bushel,  and  the  highest  price  paid  for 
late  varieties  is  $1.50  to  $3.00  per  bushel,  while  the  price  sometimes  is  as 
low  as  fifty  to  thirty  cents  per  bushel.  Early  peas  are  not  grown  profit- 
ably at  less  than  fifty  cents  per  bushel,  nor  late  peas  at  less  than  forty 
cents  per  bushel.  The  pea  thrives  best  in  light,  loamy  soil ;  the  early  and 
dwarf  sorts  demand  rich  ground. 

63.  Q.  Does  the  boring  of  peas  and  beans  by  the  weevil  affect  the  ger-  Pea  WeeviL 
mination  of  the  seed? 

A.  There  will  be  a  failure  to  sprout  if  the  grub  of  the  weevil  devours  the 
germ,  but  if  the  germ,  is  not  eaten  the  seed  will  sprout. 

Under  favorable  conditions  of  soil,  moisture  and  heat,  bug-eaten  peas 
and  beans,  when  the  germ  is  not  destroyed,  will  do  about  as  well  as  un- 
injured seed,  but  under  unfavorable  conditions,  when  the  young  plant 


14 


QUERIES   AND  ANSWERS. 


Sowing  Peas. 


Beans. 


Soil 
Covering. 


Beans,  form 
of  Pods. 


Planting 
liima  Beans. 

Distance. 


Bean, 
Banners. 


Runners. 


Bean  Rust. 


depends  largely  for  its  support  upon  the  store  of  food  laid  upon  the  seed, 
any  reduction  in  this  store  of  food  tends  to  make  the  plant  weak  and 
puny. 

63.  Q.  "When  sowing  peas  in  rows,  how  many  seeds  should  be  placed 
to  the  foot  ? 

A.  It  is  bad  policy  to  save  seed  at  the  possible  risk  of  a  crop,  for  insects 
or  excessive  rainfall  or  no  rain  whatever  may  prevent  the  development 
of  healthy  plants.  It  is  best  to  sow  four  seeds  to  the  inch.  The  growing 
plants  to  be  afterward  pulled  out  or  cut  out  to  two  plants  to  the  inch. 

64.  Q.  What  is  the  proper  time  to  plant  garden  beans  ? 

A.  Sow  when  the  apple  is  in  bloom,  and  repeat  as  frequently  as  neces- 
sary till  within  fifty  days  of  frost.  In  field  culture  sow  in  drills  at  two 
and  a  half  feet  apart.  In  garden  culture,  when  the  cultivating  is  done 
by  hand,  the  rows  may  be  at  eighteen  inches.  The  seed  should  be  sown 
in  such  quantity  as  under  ordinary  circumstances  to  warrant  one  bean 
vine  to  every  four  inches.  If  closer  than  this  their  production  will  be  im- 
paired. On  strong  soil  they  do  best  at  a  greater  distance.  Yield  about 
75  to  80  bushels.  Florida  and  Mobile  beans  reach  Philadelphia  from 
November  till  March  ;  those  shipments  in  January  command  from  $5  to  $7 
per  crate.  Round-podded  varieties  are  most  in  demand.  Beans  gener- 
ally sell  well,  but  by  first  of  April  decline  to  $3  to  $5  per  crate,  and  sub- 
sequently fall  lower  by  reason  of  injury  in  transportation. 

65.  Q.  How  deep  should  seeds  be  covered  ? 

A.  As  a  rule  seeds  should  not  be  covered  over  four  (4)  times  their 
diameter,  and  when  the  soil  is  heavy  seldom  to  that  depth, 

66.  Q.  What  is  the  advantage  of  a  round  or  cylindrical-podded  bean 
over  a  flat-podded  variety  ? 

A.  The  round  is  always  more  brittle,  less  stringy,  and  contains  more 
flesh  under  the  same  amount  of  cuticle. 

67.  Q.  How  shall  I  plant  my  Lima  beans,  on  side  or  flat,  eyes  down  or  up  ? 
A.  Eyes  down. 

68.  Q.  How  far  apart  should  Lima  bean  poles  be  set  ? 

A.  Four  by  four  feet  if  in  a  patch,  or  if  in  a  single  row  then  everj--  three 
feet.  Wire  netting  three  to  four  feet  high  and  supported  by  posts  is 
better. 

69.  Q.  What  is  a  runner  among  bush  beans  or  peas? 

A.  It  is  a  plant  which  develops  a  long  vine,  and  as  such  stands  out  in 
marked  contrast  among  the  other  vines  which  are  of  uniform  height. 

70.  Q,  Are  all  tall  growing  vines  of  peas  and  bush  beans  runners  ? 

A.  No.  As  often  a  vine  situated  over  a  lump  of  manure  will  run  from 
extra  fertility — or  deeply-rooted  vines  will  continue  in  growth  alter  all 
others  have  stopped. 

71.  Q.  Why  do  wax- podded  beans  rust  more  than  green-podded  varie- 
ties? 

A.  Rust,  so  called,  is  the  result  of  a  fungus  growth,  which  seems  to 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS.  15 

flourish  to  a  greater  extent  on  wax-podded  beans  than  on  the  old  green- 
podded  and  less  juicy  and  less  delicate  forms. 

73.  Q.  What  is  a  string  bean  ?  Bean. 

A.  It  should  be  in  its  best  estate  a  bean  without  a  string,  properly  a 
snap  short,  bat  few  sorts  are  perfectly  stringless. 

73.  Q.  How  should  sugar  peas  be  prepared  for  cooking?  SagarPeas. 
A.  Break  off  the  ends,  pull  off  the  strings,  and  then  break  up  the  pods 

into  pieces  half  an  inch  long  ;  cook  same  as  string  beans. 

74.  Q.  Can  you  explain  why  my  spinach  for  two  years  back  has  been  so  Spinach. 
sickly  as  to  be  of  little  value  ? 

A.  It  must  be  suffering  from  insects  at  the  root  or  from  one  of  the  three 
or  four  fungus  growths  known  as  spinach  blight.  If  so,  the  only  remedy 
is  a  change  of  location  of  the  spinach  patch. 

75.  Q.  Does  the  color  of  the  leaves  of  beets  indicate  the  color  of  the  flesh  Beets. 

of  the  roots?  Color  of 

A.  No  ;  the  leaves  of  Long  Blood  beet,  as  generally  sold,  is  quite  one- 
third  dashed  with  green.  When  selected  entirely  of  deep  red  foliage,  the 
production  of  seed  is  so  reduced  as  to  be  unprofitable. 

76.  Q.  How  many  tons  to  the  acre  of  sugar  beets  are  grown  on  the  beet  Sugar  Beets. 
farms  of  Germany  ? 

A.  Twenty  to  thirty  tons. 

77.  Q.  What  percentage  of  sugar  is  obtained  from  the  German  sugar  Beet  Sugar. 
beets? 

A.  Many  years  ago  only  five  per  cent,  as  the  result  of  actual  manufac- 
ture ;  now  tea  and  sometimes  fourteen  tons  of  sugar  from  one  hundred 
tons  of  beets. 

78.  Q.  What  are  Mangold  Wurzels?  Mangolds. 
A.  A  family  of  beets  bred  to  a  large  size  for  cattle  feeding.     The  roots 

are  easily  injured  by  Autumn  frosts,  and  therefore  must  be  taken  up  in 
good  time  and  properly  protected.  When  first  harvested  they  are  acrid 
and  scour  cattle,  but  after  a  few  months  become  palatable  and  safe.  The 
approved  types  produce  massive  roots  which,  well  elevated  above  the 
surface,  are  harvested  with  the  greatest  ease  and  produce  double  the 
weight  of  turnips  to  the  acre,  to  which  advantage  may  be  added  the  high 
nutritive  value,  the  saccharine  often  being  equal  to  six  or  seven  per  cent, 
of  the  gross  weight.  The  Mangold  is  a  high  feeder — potash  and  nitrogen 
are  needed  to  force  the  plant  into  vigorous  growth ;  stable  manure  will 
do  it,  or  kainit  mixed  with  dried  meat  or  fish.  Drill  when  the  cherry  is 
in  bloom, 

79.  Q.  What  should  be  done  with  the  weeds  when  pulled  up  ?  Weeds. 
A.  They  may  be  burned  and  the  ashes  used  as  manure.     They  may  be 

used  in  the  formation  of  compost  piles  if  their  seeds  are  immature,  or  they 
may  be  put  in  cattle  yards  to  be  trampled  down. 

80    Q.  What  is  the  best  manure  ?  3ianure. 

A.  "Landreths'  Farm  Notes"  says  stable  manure  is  king,  but  it  can- 
not always  be  obtained  in  quantity,  nor  at  the  desired  periods  ;  failing  to 


16 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS. 


Greeu 
Manures. 


Com. 


Sugar  Corn. 


obtain  it  for  present  use,  we  recommend  chemical  manures,  which,  used 
in  seasons  not  too  dry,  may  do  equally  well  at  less  cost ;  but  if  time  per- 
mits, green  manures  will  be  found  the  cheapest. 

81.  Q.  How  is  green  manuring  practiced  ? 

A.  Four  crops  of  green  manure  can  be  turned  down  in  seventeen 
months,  by  seeding  rye  in  October,  corn  in  April,  a  second  crop  of  corn 
in  July,  and  rye  again  in  October,  to  be  plowed  under  in  April.  This  ro- 
tation will  surprise  the  experimenter,  who  will  see  his  soil  made  fertile, 
friable,  and  in  general  vigor  far  beyond  its  previous  condition,  all  due  to 
the  valuable  component  parts  of  the  vegetable  matter  plowed  under,  and 
to  the  absorption  and  retention  of  nitrogen  by  the  soil  consequent  upon 
the  extended  covering  of  the  surface.  From  the  earliest  agricultural  rec- 
ords green  manuring  has  been  practiced,  and  whole  districts  of  country 
in  Europe  have  been  rendered  fertile  by  such  practice.  A  large  district 
in  Germany,  once  a  barren,  is  now  most  fertile,  all  due  to  the  use  of  the 
lupine,  which  plant,  however,  does  not  offer  such  good  results  under  the 
hot  sun  of  the  American  climate. 

82.  Q.  What  is  the  history  of  Corn  or  Maize  ? 

A.  This  is  a  native  of  North  and  South  America,  having  been  found  in 
cultivation  by  the  first  European  voyagers.  Modern  researches  in  Peru 
and  Mexico  have  given  evidence  that  its  culture  extends  far  beyond  any- 
historic  period.  There  is  no  foundation  whatever  for  the  statement  that 
Indian  corn  has  been  found  in  the  wrappings  of  Egyptian  mummies  ; 
such  tales  being  pure  fabrications.  Seeds  of  wheat,  sorghum  and  millet 
have  been  discovered,  but  it  is  doubtful  if  any  such  seed  ever  vegetated. 
Indian  corn  may  be  divided  into  six  classes,  viz.:  Pop,  Zea  Everta ; 
Flint,  Zea  Indurata;  Dent,  Zea  Indentata;  Soft,  Zea  Anylaca;  Sweet, 
Zea  Saccharatum;  Pod  or  Husk,  Zea  Vaginata;  and  each  of  these  are 
subdivided  according  to  shape  of  the  ear,  number  of  rows  upon  each  ear. 

83.  Q.  Give  directions  for  planting  sugar  corn. 

A.  Table  corn  cannot  be  planted  successfully  at  an  earlier  date  than 
the  ordinary  field  varieties,  indeed  it  is  more  likely  to  decay  under  unfa- 
vorable soil  conditions  than  the  hardier  field  varieties.  As  a  rule,  sugar 
corn  is  not  as  vital  as  the  field  sorts,  and  therefore  it  is  wise  to  plant 
almost  a  double  number  of  grains  in  the  hill  as  compared  with  field  corn. 
When  the  cherry  is  in  bloom,  hills  for  the  short  varieties  of  three  and 
four  feet  in  height,  may  be  made  three  by  three  feet  apart ;  for  the  inter- 
mediate varieties  three  by  four  feet ;  and  for  the  tall  varieties,  four  by  four 
feet  apart.  In  all  cases  allowing  three  stalks  to  stand  to  the  hill.  Repe- 
titions of  corn  planting  should  be  made  every  two  weeks,  and  for  the 
quick-ripening  varieties  the  planting  may  be  continued  until  within  sixty 
days  of  frost.  Seed  should  be  provided  at  the  rate  of  ten  quarts  to  the 
acre.  We  always  provide  that  much,  though  often  only  planting  six  or 
seven  quarts.  The  plants  thinned  out  to  three  inches  apart.  Of  the  me- 
dium and  large  varieties  of  sugar  corn  seventy -five  to  eighty  bushels,  or 
8000  to  9000  roasting  ears  can  be  had  to  the  acre.    The  average  price  paid 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS.  17 

by  Philadelphia  commission  merchants  is  one  dollar  per  bushel.  The 
highest  price  is  about  three  dollars  per  bushel  and  the  lowest  price  about 
sixty  cents  per  bushel.  Green  corn  packed  loosely  in  slatted  bushel  bas- 
kets will,  in  early  season,  carry  safely  for  forty  hours.  In  larger  packages 
it  may  become  injured  by  heating.  Caution. — Seed  corn  in  bulk  should 
be  taken  out  of  the  bags  as  soon  as  received  and  spread  out  in  a  dry  place. 

84.  Q.  How  many  varieties  of  corn  are  there?  Corn. 
A.  Indian  corn  as  a  family  may  be  divided  into  six  divisions  :  as — pop, 

flint,  dent,  soft,  sweet,  and  pod  or  primitive. 

85.  Q.  I  have  a  variety  of  corn,  many  stalks  of  which  are  bearing  three  seed  Corn, 
large  ears,  and  I  write  to  inquire,  if  I  take  my  seed  for  next  year  from 

the  stalks  bearing  three  ears  will  the  next  crop  also  bear  three  ears? 

A.  There  is  no  assurance  that  corn  grown  from  ears  of  which  there 
were  three  on  a  stalk  will  reproduce  that  same  character.  There  is,  how- 
ever, a  strong  probability,  and  were  it  not  for  the  disposition  of  heredity 
in  plants  of  all  kinds,  there  would  be  no  encouragement  whatever  for  the 
farmer  to  endeavor  to  improve  by  selection. 

86.  Q.  Why  is  it  that  sugar  corn  is  often  weak  in  germinating  force  ?      Com 
A.  Sugar  corn  is  among  the  most  delicate  of  all  seeds  to  cure  and  keep^**^  ^' 

in  good  condition.     If  kept  over  Winter  in  sacks  it  will  often  lose  half  its 
vitality  from  heating  or  sweating.     It  should  accordingly  be  kept  spread  storage. 
out  upon  floors  or  trays  in  a  dry  cool  place. 

87.  Q.  How  should  a  vegetable  garden  be  laid  out?  Vegetable 
A.  The  old  style  of  garden,  laid  out  in  squares  to  be  dug  and  culti-     *'**"  *'"' 

vated  exclusively  by  hand,  is  becoming  a  thing  of  the  past.  The  vegeta- 
ble garden  is  now  laid  out  in  parallel  rows  or  drills,  ranging  from  two  to 
three  feet  apart,  and  the  cultivation  in  the  greater  part  done  by  horse- 
power. The  seeds  should  be  all  sown  in  drills  or  rows  so  as  to  be  adapted 
to  horse  culture  ;  hand  labor  is  the  dearest  of  all  and  should  be  avoided. 
The  land,  if  circumstances  will  permit,  should  not  be  of  a  less  length  than 
seventy -five  yards,  and  may  with  advantage  be  extended  to  two  hundred, 
according  to  the  quantity  of  vegetables  required.  Long  lands  where  ani- 
mal power  is  used  are  much  to  be  preferred  to  short  fields,  as  much  time 
is  saved  in  turning  ;  for  example,  a  plow  team  in  a  journey  of  eight  hours, 
plowing  land  seventy-eight  yards  long,  spends  four  hours  and  thirty-nine 
minutes  on  the  headlands,  whereas  were  the  furrows  two  hundred  and 
seventy-four  yards  long,  the  time  spent  in  turning  would  be  but  one  hour 
and  nineteen  minutes.  The  tillage  of  the  garden  should  be  with  the  most 
approved  labor-saving  implements — wheel-hoes,  for  hand  use,  scarifiers  and 
cultivators  for  horse  ;  the  seeds  should  be  sown  with  hand-drills,  and  fer- 
tilizers of  the  guano  class  applied  with  similar  apparatus,  and  thus,  with- 
out interfering  with  the  labor  of  the  farm,  be  made  to  yield  vegetables  in 
profusion,  when  if  the  spade  and  hoe  be  relied  on  they  are  produced  in 
stinted  quantities. 

The  amateur  gardener,  and  the  expert  as  well,  should  make  out  a  list 
of  the  varieties  of  vegetables  he  desires  to  have,  and  then  lay  off  on  paper 


18  QfTERIES   AND   ANSWERS. 

a  diagram  of  his  garden,  assigning  certain  rotes  to  eacJi  sort.     He  can  then 
readily  calculate  the  amount  of  seed  he  will  require. 

Tarnip.  88.  Q.  What  is  a  Strap  leaved  turnip  ? 

A.  A  strap  leaf  is  an  entire  leaf,  differing  from  a  cut  leaf  which  is  ser- 
rated clear  through  to  the  midrib,  while  on  strap  leaves  there  are  no  in- 
dentations, but  the  edges  form  an  unbroken  line  like  the  margin  of  a 
rabbit's  ear. 

Celery.  89.  Q.  Will  a  good  type  of  celery  ever  produce  pithy  stalks  ? 

A.  Yes,  sometimes  it  will  on  light  soils. 

Most  90.  Q.  Which  celery  is  the  most  profitable? 

Profitable.  A..  Opinions  differ,  but  all  unite  in  advocating  the  culture  of  the  short 

varieties,  as  they  are  more  easily  managed  than  the  bulky  sorts.     The 
red  varieties  are  more  hardy  than  the  white  and  more  effective. 

Roots  91-  Q-  How  can  I  keep  my  root  crops  of  turnips  and  beets  throughout 

Keeping  over  the  Winter? 

Winter.  ^    Crops  of  turnips,  beets,  carrots,  parsnips,  salsify,  potatoes,  can  all 

be  kept  by  pitting.     Mounds  as  sometimes  used  are  more  exposed  to  frost 
and  require  careful  construction. 

When  pitting  select  a  suitable  spot  protected  by  buildings  or  forest  from 
the  severity  of  winds  and  where  the  drainage  is  good,  an  indispensable 
prerequisite.  Dig  a  trench  sixteen  inches  wide  and  as  many  or  more  inches 
in  depth,  the  length  as  convenient  or  necessary,  the  trench  divided  into 
sections  with  undisturbed  earth  partitions  every  ten  feet,  to  arrest  fermen- 
tation occurring  in  any  one  division  from  passing  further  to  the  next. 
In  this  trench  deposit  the  topped  roots  to  a  quantity  raising  them  almost 
even  with  the  surface  and  cover  with  the  earth  dug  out  of  the  trench, 
banking  it  up  to  a  height  of  twelve  or  fifteen  inches.  When  frost  may  be 
expected  in  severity  cover  the  bank  with  long  stable  manure  or  trash. 
Roots  of  all  descriptions  can  thus  be  kept  securely.  They  are  accessible 
at  all  times  and  may  be  removed  as  needed.  In  pits  such  as  described, 
the  writer  has  kept  beets  and  carrots  for  cattle  feeding  up  to  the  first  day 
of  July. 

Horse-radish     93.  Q.  How  should  horse  radish  be  planted  ? 

A.  This  plant,  seldom  producing  seed,  is  propagated  from  sets  cut  from 
old  roots,  and  in  market-garden  culture  nearly  always  planted  as  a  succes- 
sion to  a  Spring  crop  which  by  time  of  removal  leaves  the  horse- radish  well 
established.  The  sets  are  planted  in  rows  of  about  two  feet  by  eighteen 
inches,  frequently  among  Spring  cabbage.  Holes  are  made  with  a  long 
planting  stick,  into  which  are  dropped  the  horseradish  sets  to  a  depth  that 
the  top  will  be  three  inches  under  the  surface.  It  will  only  succeed  in 
highly  fertilized  land,  and  each  year  should  be  planted  afresh.  In  garden 
culture  the  sets  are  sometimes  planted  in  the  upper  end  of  round  drain  tiles 
sunk  into  the  ground  and  filled  with  earth,  the  radish  root  being  thus 
directed  straight  downwards.  Yield  about  150  bushels  to  the  acre.  Sets, 
per  doz.  15c. ;  per  100  50c. ;  per  1000  $4.00. 

fi.irden  93.  Q.  Will  it  pay  me  to  engage  a  practical  trucker  to  oversee  my  mar- 

Mauager.        ket-garden  farms  ? 


QUERIES   AND  ANSWERS.  19 

A.  Yes,  if  the  farm  is  often  or  more  acres,  Length  of 

94.  Q.  Do  you  recommend  long  or  short  rows  for  vegetable  garden  Kows. 
culture? 

A.  Long  lands,  where  animal  power  is  used,  are  much  to  be  preferred 
to  short  fields,  as  much  time  is  saved  in  turning  ;  for  example,  a  plow 
team  in  a  journey  of  eight  hours,  plowing  land  seventy-eight  yards  long, 
spends  four  hours  and  thirty-nine  minutes  on  the  headlands,  whereas, 
were"  the  furrows  two  hundred  and  seventy-four  yards  long,  the  time 
spent  iu  turning  would  be  but  one  hour  and  nineteen  minutes. 

95.  Q.  Is  amateur  or  market  gardening  a  business  easily  learned  ?  Gardening 
A.  To  raise  ordinary  vegetables  not  much  experience  is  necessary,  but  Experience. 

a  complete  knowledge  of  the  art  of  gardening  can  only  be  acquired  by 
much  experience  and  quick  perception. 

96.  Q.  How  should  I  make  a  lawn.  Lawn. 
A.  The  Landreth  lawn  grass  mixture  which  we  offer  should  not  be 

compared  with  the  cheaper  preparations  advertised.  Our  prescription  is 
of  the  best  chosen  varieties,  as  respects  color,  texture  and  permanency, 
and  will  be  found  clear  of  weed  seeds.  Any  one  who  purchases  cheap, 
badly  mixed  lawn  grass  will  soon  realize  that  it  was  a  poor  investment, 
as  the  error  will  stand  out  for  years  in  glaring  ugliness. 

This  prescription  consists  of  100  parts,  divided  in  such  proportion  be- 
tween those  grasses  which  our  observation  has  indicated  as  best  for  general 
park  effect,  as  respects  color,  density  of  herbage,  vigor,  quick  recupera- 
tion after  mowing  and  permanency.  The  seeds  used  are  all  well  cleaned, 
and  we  believe  them  to  be  pure  and  of  full  vitality,  and  all  persons  using 
them  are  certain  to  secure  a  stand,  provided  the  land  be  properly  prepared 
and  the  seed  sown  at  the  proper  time  and  at  the  right  depth,  and  pro- 
vided there  be  sufficient  rainfall  to  germinate  the  seed.  We  cannot  be 
responsible  for  the  errors  of  the  inexperienced.  A  pound  of  seed  will 
sow  a  space  20  x  20  feet,  or  say  400  square  feet.  Sixty  pounds  will  sow 
an  acre,  but  we  recommend  seventy  or  eighty  pounds.  Price  per  pound, 
about  25  cents. 

Much  of  the  success  of  lawn  making  depends  upon  the  preparation  of 
the  ground.  The  land  must  be  well  plowed  or  dug  and  harrowed  or 
raked  to  secure  thorough  pulverization,  and  after  being  reduced  to  a  per- 
fectly even  surface  should  be  cleared  of  stumps,  stones,  roots  and  other 
impediments.  The  soil  should  then  be  made  firm  with  a  heavy  roller  and 
top-dressed  with  a  good  fertilizer,  unless  the  laud  had  received  an  appli- 
cation of  seven  to  eight  tons  of  very  short  well-rotted  stable  manure 
before  plowing.  "We  will  here  remark  that  stable  manure  is  the  best  of 
all  fertilizers,  but  there  being  some  difllculty  iu  obtaining  it  and  objections 
to  its  use  on  account  of  its  offensive  appearance  and  smell,  we  recommend 
in  Landreth  lawn  fertilizer  a  good  grade  of  concentrated  fertilizer.  Six 
to  seven  hundred  pounds  to  the  acre  of  such  mixture  should  be  applied. 
The  fertilizer  should  be  lightly  harrowed  in  upon  the  seedbed,  as  it  will 
be  lost  to  the  young  plants  if  buried  much  beneath  the  surface.     After 


20  QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS. 

the  harrowing  the  ground  should  be  severely  rolled,  that  the  earth  and 
seed  may  be  brought  into  close  contact.  Our  lawn  grass  mixture  should 
be  sown  at  the  rate  of  sixty  pounds  to  the  acre  and  rolled  down.  Sowing 
in  September  and  October  will  be  found  most  advantageous  in  latitudes 
south  of  Philadelphia  ;  in  more  northerly  locations  Spring  sowing  Is  most 
successfully  practiced,  the  work  being  done  in  April  and  May. 

Annual  seeds,  natural  to  the  soil,  are  certain  to  spring  up  before  the 
young  grass  becomes  established,  and  an  inexperienced  person  is  likely  to 
conclude  that  the  weeds  spring  from  weed  seed  in  the  grass  seed,  but  all 
soils  contain  weed  seeds,  and  upon  tillage  they  are  certain  to  vegetate. 
The  weeds  as  they  become  large  enough  may  be  cut  down  or  pulled  up  ; 
after  the  first  year  their  growth  will  cease.  Frequent  rolling  is  advanta- 
geous in  producing  a  good  lawn  by  solidifying  the  soil,  harassing  insects 
and  other  vermin,  and  improving  the  level  of  the  surface. 

Students  of  agriculture  will  find  the  volume  on  the  "  Grasses  of  North 
America,"  by  Professor  W.  J.  Beale,  of  much  value  in  assisting  them  in 
this  interesting  study. 

On  all  lawns  will  regularly  appear  in  greater  or  less  numbers  a  lot  of 
interlopers,  such  as  buttercups,  plantains,  dandelions,  all  from  seeds 
natural  to  the  soil.  These  uninvited  guests  should  always  be  dug  out, 
otherwise  subsequent  labor  will  be  increased  one  hundredfold  by  their 
seeding.  Lawns  may  be  advantageously  dressed  with  stable  manure  in 
December,  the  long  strawy  portions  being  removed  in  March. 

On  those  portions  of  lawns  as  around  the  house,  where  an  immediate 
result  in  grass  efiect  is  desired,  sod  may  be  used.  Fair  sod  can  generally 
be  had  on  roadsides,  and  if  carefully  taken  up  and  when  laid  down  accu- 
rately jointed  and  solidified,  and  covered  with  half  an  inch  of  rich  com- 
post, it  will  at  once  start  off  and  very  soon  be  as  much  a  fixture  as  the 
adjoining  trees  and  shrubs. 

Lawn  grass  of  good  quality  should  produce  a  fair  mat  of  herbage  in 
from  seventy  to  ninety  days. 

Some  parties  offering  lawn  grass  at  a  low  price  are  using  the  so-called 
Canada  Blue  Grass,  which  sometimes  contains  seeds  of  Canada  Thistle,  a 
pest,  and  difficult  to  eradicate. 

Some  people,  after  seeding  a  piece  of  land  with  lawn  grass  expect 
to  see  a  green  mat  in  two  or  three  weeks,  but  in  this  they  are  unrea- 
sonable, as  the  better  varieties  of  grass  are  slow  to  produce  effect,  and 
when  an  eSect  is  quickly  developed  it  is  at  the  expense  of  adaptability 
and  permanency.  For  instance,  a  fine  mat  of  green  color  can  be  had  in 
two  weeks  from  a  heavy  sowing  of  white  clover,  something  very  effective 
and  pleasing  to  the  eye,  but  clover  is  not  a  grass  and  is  not  suitable  for 
lawns,  failing  to  produce  that  velvet-like  efi"ect,  the  result  of  the  growth 
of  the  erect  leaves  produced  by  the  best  grasses,  which  habit  fits  them  to 
quickly  recover  after  mowing. 

Manures  or  fertilizers  for  lawns  may  be  of  many  combinations.  We 
recommend  to  those  who  prefer  to  do  their  own  mixing  a  compound  of 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS.  21 

300  pounds  of  superphosphate,  costing  say $5  00 

300  pounds  dried  meat,  blood  or  fish,  at 6  00 

400  pounds  refuse  common  salt,  at 1  00 

Or  say  per  acre $12  00 

The  quantity  of  the  two  first  may  be  doubled  to  advantage,  or  even 
made  stronger,  as  grass  will  stand  almost  any  amount  of  fertilizer. 

The  common  salt  used  as  an  alterative  and  solvent  will  be  found, 
through  its  affinity  for  moisture,  to  have  a  decided  influence  in  keeping 
up  the  emerald  green  condition  so  desirable  on  a  perfect  lawn.  On  grow- 
ing grass  not  more  than  three  bushels  to  the  acre  should  be  applied  in  a 
season,  and  then  best  during  a  rain — never  under  a  hot  sun. 

97.  Q.  What  kind  of  grass  should  be  sown  on  athletic  grounds?  Grass  for 
A.  This  prescription  is  also  of  100  parts,  but  difl^ers  from  our  park  lawn  Athletic 

grass  in  the  list  of  varieties,  a  proportion  of  such  sorts  being  here  added  *'*'*'"°^®' 
as  to  better  stand  the  wear  and  tear  of  tramping  consequent  upon  games 
of  tennis,  cricket,  lacrosse  and  baseball. 

A  pound  will  sow  a  space  20  x  20  feet,  or  say  400  square  feet.  Sixty 
pounds  will  sow  an  acre,  but  we  recommend  seventy  or  eighty  pounds. 
Price  per  pound,  S5  cents. 

Old  lawns  much  in  decay  had  best  be  plowed  up,  leveled  up  and  re- 
sown,  but  often  this  course  is  not  convenient,  certainly  not  if  the  lawn 
can  be  renovated  by  a  system  taking  less  time.  In  that  case,  when  prompt 
results  are  desirable,  the  old  sod  should  be  well  combed  by  a  harrow  to 
tear  out  the  dried  grass  and  easily  extracted  dead  roots.  This  operation 
also  breaks  the  earth,  putting  it  in  a  pulverized  condition  to  receive  seed, 
which  may  be  sown  broadcast,  and  falling  between  the  living  grass,  roots 
into  the  friable  and  fresh  soil,  and  is  at  once  in  position  to  germinate  and 
occupy  the  space.  On  many  lawns  cut  with  the  lawn  mower  there  ap- 
pear many  pests — the  creeping  veronica  and  the  mouse-eared  chickweed 
being  prominent — which  crowd  out  desirable  grasses  and  mar  the  appear- 
ance of  the  sward.  Under  such  circumstances  it  is  advised  to  break  up 
the  parts  affected  and  sow  with  seed  of  the  Sheep  Fescue,  which  will  admit 
of  such  close  cutting  as  to  destroy  all  pestiferous  plants.  The  seed  of 
Sheep  Fescue  costs  about  sixteen  cents  per  pound. 

98.  Q.  Is  there  a  grass  or  mixture  suitable  for  growth  under  trees?         Grass  under 
A.  Landreths'  mixture  of  varieties  produces  a  reliable  stand  under  Trees. 

dense  shade  of  either  pine  or  hard-wood  trees  in  positions  where  all 
other  grasses  may  have  failed.  Sixty  pounds  should  be  sown  to  the  acre 
— or,  say  one  pound  on  a  space  20  x  20  feet,  or  in  proportion  for  other  di- 
mensions.    Price  per  pound,  25  cents. 

99.  Q.  What  is  the  best  grass  for  a  permanent  pasture  ?  Permanent 
A.  The  preparation  of  the  laud  for  permanent  pasture  is  a  labor  that  ^as***^®* 

must  not  be  slighted,  and  though  farm  work  cannot  be  reduced  to  the 
nicety  of  lawn  culture,  we  nevertheless  direct  attention  to  our  directions 
on  lawn  making,  and  would  say  that  the  nearer  the  directions  are  fol- 


22  QUERIES  AND   ANSWERS. 

lowed  the  greater  the  probability  of  success.  It  must,  however,  be  borne 
in  mind  that  a  pasture  sod  cannot  be  obtained  in  one  year. 

The  judicious  selection  of  grass  seed  for  the  creation  of  a  durable  pasture 
requires  a  knowledge  obtained  only  by  an  intimate  study  of  the  habits  of 
varieties  as  respects  quality  of  herbage  and  vigor  of  constitution.  Except 
in  the  Blue  Grass  sections  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  it  is  not  sufficient 
always  to  select  the  one  grass  indigenous  to  the  district,  for  it  may  not  pos- 
sess the  double  quality  desirable  for  green  pasturage  and  hay,  for  hardiness 
and  permanence,  which  combination  of  qualities  and  character  is  best  found 
in  a  mixture  of  sorts.  That  prescription,  to  be  thoroughly  scientific, 
should  be  adapted  to  the  geological  composition  of  the  soil,  be  it  slaty, 
calcareous  or  alkaline,  as  well  as  the  mechanical  condition  of  the  soil,  be 
it  sandy,  loamy  or  clayey.  These  conditions  vary  so  much  that  no  one 
can  attempt  to  be  entirely  exact  in  a  recommendation  for  grasses  to  be 
planted.  We  cannot  more  than  undertake  to  prescribe  for  soils  heavy,  as 
clay  or  deep  loam  ;  medium,  as  light  loam  or  peat ;  liglit,  as  sand,  slate  or 
gravel.  "We  are  prepared  to  furnish  single  grasses,  or  two  or  three  in  a 
mixture,  to  meet  the  requirements  of  any  ordinary  farm  land  for  the  pro- 
duction of  hay ;  or,  if  permanent  pasture  is  desired,  we  are  prepared  to 
furnish  mixtures  for  soils  either  heavy  or  light. 

Hay  Grasses.      100.  Q.  I  should  be  pleased  to  have  your  views  in  regard  to  grasses  for 
hay  and  pasture  for  our  Texas  stock  ? 

A.  Most  artificial  grasses  fail  to  stand  in  warm  climates  ;  even  in  tide- 
water Virginia  there  is  difficulty. 

Natural  grasses,  when  good  ones  can  be  found,  are  to  be  decidedly  pre- 
ferred. Attention  is  however  invited  to  Orchard  grass  as  a  vigorous  and 
generally  reliable  sort. 

Alfalfa  is  a  grass  resisting  heat.  When  once  established  it  is  a  heavy  pro- 
ducer, but  does  better  as  a  grass  to  be  mowed  than  pastured,  as  cattle  eat 
oflFa  large  portion  of  tlie  crowns  which  stand  up  above  the  surface. 

Red  Top,  101,  Q.  What  is  the  distinction  between  Herds  grass  or  Red  Top,  and 

***■  Rhode  Island  Bent  ? 

jjg^j  A.  Herds  grass,  growing  very  largely  in  New  Jersey  and  the  West,  is 

known  botanically  as  Agrostis  vulgaris.  Rhode  Island  Bent,  found  grow- 
ing naturally  over  the  States  of  Connecticut,  Rhode  Island  and  Massa- 
chusetts, is  known  as  Agrostis  vulgaris  minor.  They  are  very  similar  in 
nearly  all  particulars.  The  Rhode  Island  Bent,  when  kept  mowed  down 
closely,  makes  a  fine  lawn  effect ;  no  other  variety  of  grass  being  more 
highly  prized,  for  lawn  purposes,  in  the  New  England  States. 

Canada  Blue      103.  Q.  What  do  you  know  about  Canadian  Blue  grass? 

Grass.  A.  Blue  grass  seed  from  Canada  was  sold  in  the  Eastern  markets  forty 

or  fifty  years  ago  in  preference  to  the  Kentuclty  seed,  because  the  latter 
was  fuzzy  and  not  easily  sown.     But  later  on,  by  the  use  of  improved 
,  machinery,  the  Kentucky  seed  was  made  as  clean  and  free  from  fuzz  as 

the  Canadian,  aud  is  preferred  to  the  latter  as  being  purer  and  free  from 
any  danger  of  Canada  thistle,  which  is  the  worst  pest  which  can  establish 
itself  upon  a  farm. 


QUERIES   AXD  ANSWERS.  23 

103.  Q.  Why  is  it  my  new  lawn  sowed  with  lawn  grass  is  full  of  weeds  ?  Lawn  Grass. 
A.  From  seeds  of  weeds,  some  of  which  may  have  been  in  the  soil  for 

many  years.  Every  experienced  gardener  know^s  that  in  new  lawns  weeds 
always  seem  to  take  possession  of  the  land.  They  should  be  pulled  up 
or  mowed  off.  If  the  seed  of  the  lawn  grass  is  vital,  patience  will  reward 
the  gardener.  The  weeds  are  only  annual  and  will  die  during  Winter 
whilst  the  grass  will  live. 

104.  Q.  Why  do  some  lawn  grass  mixtures  develop  an  earlier  effect  Cheap  Grass. 
than  others? 

A.  Those  which  produce  the  earliest  effect  aregenerally  combinations  of 
the  cheaper  grasses,  prominent  among  which  is  Herds  grass. 

105.  Q.  Should  hay  be  cut  before  it  is  perfectly  ripe?  Hay. 
A.  Yes,  because  in  the   unripe  forage  there  is  considerable   sugary 

matter  most  valuable  in  cattle  feeding,  which  as  the  plants  ripen  changes 
first  into  starch  and  then  into  woody  fibre. 

106.  Q.  What  is  your  experience  with  Scarlet  clover?  Scarlet 
A.  Our  field  experience  with  Scarlet  or  Crimson  clover,  as  it  is  variously  Clover. 

called,  dates  back  to  1871,  when  we  first  grew  it  as  a  field  crop  on  our 
Virginia  farm.  Many  years  before  that  we  grew  it  experimentally  in  our 
trial  grounds.     Its  value  is  : 

(1).  For  pasturage  in  Winter  and  early  Spring.  If  not  pastured  too 
closely  it  will  afterwards  make  a  crop  for  cutting  for  green  feeding,  later 
on  for  hay,  or  still  later  for  plowing  under. 

(2).  For  cutting  green  in  Arpril  and  May  as  food  for  horses  or  cows ; 
soiling  as  it  is  termed.  It  will  be  found  fully  four  to  five  weeks  earlier 
than  Ked  clover,  consequently  it  admits  of  very  early  cutting.  The  New 
Jersey  Experimental  Station  estimates  that  one  acre  in  April  and  May 
will  feed  ten  cows  for  twenty  days.  In  New  Jersey  fifteen  tons  of  green 
stuff  has  been  cut  to  the  acre.  Its  composition  and  digestibility  is  better 
than  Red  clover,  but  of  course  animals  must  not  be  permitted  to  overfeed. 

(3).  For  hay.  In  dry  hay  it  gives  a  product  of  one  to  two  tons  to  the 
acre  of  a  quality  similar  to  Red  clover.  The  stems,  when  the  crop  is  in 
bloom,  vary  from  two  to  five  feet  long  according  to  soil. 

(4).  For  green  manuring.  This  may  be  done  in  April  or  May  and  is  its 
chief  merit  because  of  its  wonderful  development  by  that  date  both  above 
and  below  ground.  Like  Red  clover  it  roots  to  great  depths,  even  as 
much  as  six  feet,  and  gathers  the  spread-out  potash  of  the  soil,  drawing 
it  up  and  concentrating  it  near  the  surface,  where  subsequent  and  less 
deeply-rooting  crops  can  get  it. 

The  New  Jersey  Experimental  Station  estimates  its  value  in  potash 
and  nitrogen  at  thirty  dollars  to  the  acre.  Of  course  this  is  a  laboratory 
test  and  a  book-maker's  calculation,  but  the  field  experience  of  hundreds 
of  observant  farmers  seems  to  sustain  the  estimate  as  the  result  of  plow- 
ing it  under.  In  Jersey,  Maryland  and  Delaware,  where  it  is  best 
known,  the  results  have  been  phenomenal.  It  will  not  flourish  on  wet 
land,  but  it  will  grow  on  poor,  sandy  soil  or  on  thin,  worn-out  lands,  but  Soil. 


24 


QUERIES  AND   ANSWERS. 


Seeding. 


Cost. 


Cutting 
Grain. 


Plant 
Foliage. 


Dodder. 


of  course  naturally  does  better  as  the  soil  improves.  Its  effect  is  most 
noticeable  on  worn-out  fields  and  we  specially  recommend  it  to  the  own- 
ers of  such  in  cotton  and  tobacco  sections. 

North  of  the  Potomac  and  the  Ohio  rivers  it  should  be  sown  between 
1st  July  and  15th  August.  South  of  that  latitude  it  can  be  sown  in  Sep- 
tember and  October  according  to  latitude.  Fifteen  pounds  should  be 
broadcasted  to  the  acre  ;  the  laud  well-plowed  and  harrowed  before  and 
after  seeding.  It  should  be  very  lightly  covered.  It  does  not  do  well 
sown  with  grain,  as  it  cannot  be  cut  green  nor  pastured  when  among 
grain,  while  for  plowing  under  it  needs  to  be  turned  down  before  the 
grain  is  ripe.  It  can  be  sown  to  great  advantage  in  apple,  pear  and  peach 
orchards  after  the  tillage  has  ceased.  Its  manurial  effect  upon  peach 
trees  is  very  remarkable.  It  can  also  be  broadcasted  with  buckwheat  or 
sown  among  fields  of  tomatoes,  melons,  corn  and  cabbage,  or  any  crop 
where  the  culture  is  over  by  the  first  of  September,  the  clover  to  remain 
after  the  named  crops  are  removed.  Growing  more  rapidly  than  Red 
clover,  it  develops  before  Winter  a  mat-like  covering  over  the  ground, 
protecting  it  from  the  injurious  effects  of  exposure  to  wind  and  sun  during 
Winter.  In  this  respect  it  is  better  than  rye,  because  it  is  equally  quick 
and  more  fertilizing,  being  a  potash  plant.  Sown  in  such  places  as  indi- 
cated, it  can  be  plowed  down  any  time  in  the  Spring  to  a  profit  four  times 
its  cost. 

The  cost  of  seed  to  sow  an  acre  is  about  $1.00  to  $1.50.  The  expenses 
of  preparing  the  land  to  sow  and  plowing  the  clover  under  can  be  calcu- 
lated by  any  farmer.  The  estimated  value  to  the  acre  of  Scarlet  clover  as 
a  green  manure  is  thirty  dollars.  An  experiment  conducted  with  a  corn 
crop  following  a  crop  of  Crimson  clover,  the  seed  of  which  costs  one  dol- 
lar to  the  acre,  and  the  various  operations  of  plowing  and  harrowing 
four  dollars — a  total  of  five  dollars — gave  as  much  corn  to  the  acre  as  an 
application  of  twenty  dollars'  worth  of  nitrate  of  soda. 

107.  Q.  Should  wheat,  rye  and  oats  be  cut  before  fully  ripe  ? 

A.  Yes,  as  by  such  course  the  straw  is  of  a  better  quality,  there  is  an 
extended  opportunity  to  secure  the  crop,  there  is  a  saving  in  the  crop  by 
securing  it  all,  and  the  nutritive  powers  of  the  grain  are  greater  than  when 
longer  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  sun. 

108.  Q.  Does  the  outward  appearance  of  plants  indicate  the  character 
of  manuring  and  system  of  tillage  necessary  to  be  pursued? 

A.  Decidedly  so.  Beans  and  peas  show  by  their  foliage  that  they  derive 
most  nutrition  from  the  air,  and  wheat  and  rye  from  the  spareness  of 
their  foliage  show  they  receive  the  least. 

109.  Q.  What  is  dodder? 

A.  It  is  a  parasitic  creeper,  leafless,  twining,  the  stems  twisting  con- 
trary to  the  sun's  course  and  attaching  themselves  to  the  supporting 
plant  by  numerous  air  roots  which,  extracting  the  sap  of  the  plant,  kill 
it  by  starvation.  The  seeds  of  dodder  at  first  germinate  and  vegetate  upon 
the  earth  till  the  plant  reaches  a  height  of  two  or  three  inches,  by  which 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS.  25 

time,  if  its  tendrils  cau  seize  upon  the  juicy  stems  of  clover,  flax,  hops, 
tomatoes,  onions  and  many  otlier  plants,  they  will  attach  themselves  to 
these  plants  and  cease  to  continue  their  attachment  to  the  soil.  The 
color  of  the  plant  is  yellow,  and  it  produces  closely  packed  heads  of  bell- 
shaped  white  and  pink  flowers  sometimes  quite  sweet  scented. 

110.  Q.  What  is  ramie  ?  Ramie. 
A.  It  is  a  plant,  a  native  of  China  and  adjacent  countries,  and  of  value 

as  producing  a  bark  containing  a  fibre  in  many  respects  supposed  to  be 
equal  to  flax. 

111.  Q.  In  what  States  can  ramie  be  grown  ?  Ramie. 
A.  Very  successfully  in   any  of  the  cotton  States.     The  roots  once 

planted  last  for  many  years. 

113.  Q.  How  many  tons  of  the  dry  green  bark  can  be  produced  to  the  Green  Bark. 
acre  and  at  what  value  ? 

A.  On  good  bottom  land  two  to  three  crops  can  be  grown.  To  each 
cutting  from  500  to  1000  pounds,  worth  five  cents  per  pound. 

113.  Q.  Has  the  manufacture  of  ramie  fabric  yet  become  an  established  Manufacture. 
process  ? 

A.  Not  yet,  though  many  mills  are  making  experiments  in  de-gumming 
imported  ramie  bark  known  as  China  grass  and  in  spinning  the  thread 
and  weaving  tissues. 

114.  Q.  Give  directions  for  starting  or  forcing  Vegetable  or  Flower  Forcing 
seeds  in  the  house  ?  Seeds. 

A.  When  it  is  desired  to  hasten  the  development  of  plants,  they  may  be 
sown  in  the  conservatory  or  in  boxes  within  the  house.  Those  who  have 
greenhouses  hardly  need  directions,  but  for  those  who  have  had  lees 
experience  we  drop  the  following  hints  : 

Procure  shallow  boxes,  trays,  or  broad  pots  from  two  to  four  inches 
deep  ;  the  bottoms  permitting  the  free  passage  of  water,  else  the  earth 
will  bake  and  become  sour.  Seeds  will  not  germinate  satisfactorily  or 
thrive  in  a  wet  soil.  Prepare  a  mixture  of  one-third  leaf-mold  cut  fine, 
one-third  clean  sand,  and  one-third  finely  pulverized  stable  manure  ; 
moisten  the  mixture  thoroughly,  and  fill  into  the  boxes  to  within  a  half 
inch  of  the  top — gently  patting  down  the  surface  to  a  level.  Upon  this 
distribute  the  seed,  and  cover  just  out  of  sight,  by  sifting  over  the  seed 
the  finest  eartli  procurable,  settling  the  seed  down  with  a  fine  spray  of 
water  shaken  from  a  brush,  a  heavier  application  baking  the  surface. 
Place  the  boxes  where  they  will  remain  at  a  temperature  of  between  60° 
and  70°,  applying  water  with  a  brush  or  fine  rose  when  the  surface  be- 
comes dry.  When  the  seedlings  are  half  an  inch  high,  they  may  be 
transplanted  to  other  boxes,  placing  the  tiny  plants  about  one  to  each 
square  inch.  When  these  become  so  large  as  to  crowd  each  other,  they 
should  again  be  transplanted  to  the  garden  or  to  other  boxes  according  to 
the  season. 

115.  Q.  What  is  a  hotbed  ?  Hotbed. 
A.  It  is  a  box  or  frame  without  bottom  or  top,  made  for  one,  two  or 


26 


QUERIES   AXD   ANSWERS. 


four  sash,  as  in  the  illustration.  It  may  be  made  permanent  of  brick  or 
stone,  or  temporary  of 
plank  or  one-inch  com- 
mon boards,  the  back 
board  about  twenty 
inches  high,  one-half 
greater  elevation  than 
the  front,  which  should 
be  twelve  to  fourteen 
inches  —  the  whole 
made  to  support  a  sash 
or  several  of  any  dimensions,  the  best  of  about  three  by  seven  feet.  The 
back  being  higher  than  the  front,  gives  a  declivity  to  the  sash,  thus  cast- 
ing off  the  rain,  which  it  would  not  do  if  flat. 

The  box  at  proper  season  is  placed  upon  a  bed  of  fermenting  material, 
which,  making  a  gentle  and  continuous  heat,  warms  up  a  layer  of  soil 
resting  upon  it,  and  thus  germinates  seed  and  forces  plants  into  rapid 
growth. 

Manure.  The  value  of  the  bed  depends  principally  upon  the  character  of  the 

fermenting  material.  This  should  be  rich  stable  manure  (no  cow  dung) 
forked  over  two  or  three  times  at  intervals  of  a  week  and  kept  in  a  deep 
and  compact  pile  till  it  begins  to  smoke  or  steam,  indicating  that  the 
process  of  fermentation  has  set  in.  If  the  dung  be  very  rich  in  grain  an 
addition  of  forest  leaves  is  desirable,  as  they  serve  to  prolong  the  period 
of  fermentation,  which  otherwise  might  be  too  rapid. 

liocation  and     Selecting  a  well-drained  location,  and  one  never  flooded  by  rain,  exca- 


Alaking. 


Care  of 
Uotbeds. 


vate  a  pit  one  or  two  feet  deep,  and  one  foot  longer  and  one  foot  broader 
than  the  box.  Into  this  place  six  inches  of  rough  barnyard  manure,  corn 
stalks,  leaves  or  straw,  for  drainage,  and  on  it  lightly  fork  in  the  ferment- 
ing dung  and  tramp  it  firmly  down  to  a  depth  of  two  feet.  Place  on  the 
box  and  fit  the  sash  lightly,  cover  with  mats  and  allow  fermentation  to 
again  proceed,  banking  up  with  hot  manure  on  the  outside  all  around  at 
an  angle  of  45°.  Place  on  top  of  the  manure  a  layer  of  three  inches  of 
rich,  moist,  finely  pulverized  soil.  In  a  day  or  so  the  temperature  will 
rise  to  120°.  When  the  temperature  has  fallen  to  90°  destroy  all  the 
weeds  which  have  sprouted  ;  and  sow  the  seed  for  which  the  bed  is  in- 
tended. Cover  every  night  with  mats  to  exclude  frost  and  give  air  during 
the  day,  never  allowing  the  temperature  to  fall  below  70°  or  rise  above 
90°.  The  secret  of  growing  good  plants  is  to  give  plenty  of  air,  else  the 
plants  will  be  sickly,  spindly  specimens.  Short,  stocky  plants  are  what 
are  desired.  Sow  the  seed  in  rows  three  inches  apart  and  one-quarter  to 
one-third  inch  deep,  and  cover  by  sifting  on  fine  earth. 

Water  every  evening.  Remove  the  mats  every  morning  about  nine 
o'clock,  give  air  about  ten  o'clock.  Cut  off  the  air  in  the  afternoon  as 
soon  as  the  air  becomes  the  least  chilly.  Cover  with  mats  before  sunset. 
Hotbeds  should  be  covered  early  in  the  evening,  to  retain  their  heat,  and 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS.  27 

in  the  morning  uncovered  wlien  the  sun  rests  upon  the  glass,  as  every 
eflort  should  be  made  to  give  the  plants  all  the  sunlight  possible,  as  its 
rays  are  vivifying  to  a  degree  beyond  the  amount  of  its  heat,  it  having  a 
chemical  and  physiological  effect  beyond  explanation.  Even  dull  light 
is  better  than  no  light,  consequently  it  is  a  bad  plan  to  cover  sashes  v?ith 
mats,  except  for  the  direct  purpose  of  keeping  out  cold.  Peppers  and 
egg  plants  require  more  heat  than  other  plants.     Success  depends  on  ^ 

bottom  heat  from  the  manure,  top  heat  from  the  sun,  water  from  daily 
application,  and  air  at  midday.  Without  plenty  of  air  the  other  requisites 
will  be  fruitless.  All  seedlings  should  be  transplanted  into  other  hobteds 
or  intermediate  beds  when  two  inches  high.  Hotbeds  may  be  used  for 
forcing  lettuce,  radish,  egg  plant,  pepper,  tomatoes,  cabbage,  cauliflower 
and  ornamental  flowers. 

We  have  known  locations  where  stable  manure  for  hotbeds  was  not  Artificial 
readily  obtained,  and  to  meet  such  conditions  we  give  the  following 
directions  for  manufacturing  a  fermenting  material  for  the  production  of 
a  moderate  and  continuous  heat,  the  quantities  named  being  suflicient 
for  a  box  twelve  by  seven  feet.  Take  as  the  crude  materials,  500  pounds 
of  straw,  three  bushels  powdered  quicklime,  six  pounds  muriatic  acid, 
six  pounds  saltpetre. 

Having  prepared  the  excavation  of  proper  dimensions,  spread  three  or 
four  inches  of  forest  leaves  or  old  hay  in  the  bottom.  Upon  that  spread 
eight  inches  of  the  straw,  tramp  it  down  and  sprinkle  with  one-third  part 
of  the  quicklime.  Dilute  the  six  pounds  of  muriatic  acid  with  twenty 
gallons  of  water,  and  by  means  of  an  old  broom,  sprinkle  the  bed  with 
one-third  part  of  the  solution.  Make  another  layer  of  eight  inches  of 
straw,  applying  quicklime  and  the  solution  as  before.  Repeat  for  a  third 
layer.  Upon  this  make  a  fourth  layer  of  straw,  and  upon  it  sprinkle  the 
four  pounds  of  saltpetre  dissolved  in  thirty  gallons  of  water.  Place  the 
box  in  position,  bank  up  outside,  within  the  box  spread  three  inches  rich, 
finely  pulverized  earth,  and  put  on  the  sash.  A  heat  will  soon  be  gener- 
ated which  will  continue  for  two  or  three  weeks. 

116.  Q.  What  is  the  cause  of  coldness  in  clay  soils  ?  Radiation. 
A.  Clay  soils  holding  water  have  much  of  it  to  evaporate,  and  radiation 

always  produces  cold. 

117.  Q.  Does  drainage  warm  the  soil  ?  Drainage. 
A.  Yes  ;  as  it  reduces  the  amount  of  water  to  be  evaporated  and  radia- 
tion always  produces  cold. 

118.  Q.  What  is  meant  by  firming  the  soil  ?  Firming  the 
A.  It  is  a  newly  coined  expression  to  indicate  a  process  as  old  as  the  ^**'^* 

agriculture  of  Virgil.  It  means  pressing  down  the  soil  with  the  feet  or  a 
roller,  so  that  the  soil  and  seed  or  transplanted  seedling  and  soil  are 
brought  into  intimate  contact  so  that  germination  or  vegetation  may  be 
hastened  and  promoted. 

119.  Q.  What  is  sap  ?  Sap. 


28 


QUERIES  AND  ANSWERS. 


Frost. 


Mold. 


Gypsum. 


Insecticide. 


A.  Sap  is  water  circulating  ia  plants,  and  containing  gaseous  matter 
and  certain  eartlis  and  salts  in  solution  or  suspension. 

120.  Q.  Why  do  young  vegetables  and  the  tender  leaves  of  all  plants 
suffer  more  from  frost  than  older  growth  ? 

A.  Because  supercharged  with  sap  they  evaporate  rapidly  and  become 
cold  and  freeze  sooner  than  parts  more  mature. 

121    Q.  What  is  vegetable  mold  ? 

A.  It  is  a  dark-colored  soil  best  known  as  the  upper  strata  found  in 
woodlands.  It  consists  of  decayed  weeds,  twigs,  branches  of  trees,  de- 
cayed grass  and  other  vegetable  matter  mixed  with  surface  soil. 

122.  Q.  What  is  gypsum  ? 

A.  It  is  known  sometimes  as  plaster  of  Paris,  sometimes  as  sulphate  of 
lime.    It  is  the  least  valuable  of  the  mineral  manures,  pound  for  pound, 
but  is  highly  thought  of  as  a  top  dressing  for  grass  lands,  clover  thriving 
especially  after  its  application. 
Insecticides.       123.  Q.  How  can  I  kill  garden  ants  ? 

A.  By  using  molasses  mixed  with  paris  green. 

124.  Q.  What  is  the  best  insecticide  ? 
A.  The  discovery  of  an  article  which,  while  not  injuring  the  cucumber 

plant,  will  destroy  the  bug  which  infests  it  from  the  time  of  its  germina- 
tion until  it  has  attained  a  growth  of  three  or  four  rough  leaves,  is  a  sub- 
ject of  the  greatest  interest  to  all  cultivators  of  this  fruit.  So  much  has 
been  written  of  a  contradictory  nature  upon  this  subject  that  it  is  next 
to  impossible  to  determine  what  remedies  to  adopt.  We  would  suggest 
that  each  cultivator  experiment  for  himself  with  several  compounds  :  for 
instance,  one  part  of  hellebore  mixed  with  four  parts  of  ground  land 
plaster  ;  one  part  of  slug  shot  mixed  with  six  parts  of  land  plaster  ;  one 
part  Paris  green  mixed  with  twelve  parts  of  land  plaster  ;  and  one  pint  of 
kerosene  oil  mixed  with  three  quarts  of  sawdust. 

Good  results  in  the  destruction  of  squash  bugs  have  been  obtained  by 
the  application,  under  ground  about  the  roots  of  the  plants,  of  the  liquid 
carbon  bisulphide,  the  fumes  of  which  are  quickly  deadly  to  insect  life. 
Eight  ounces  of  Paris  green  to  100  gallons  of  water  is  Professor  Cook's 
wash  for  the  cucumber  beetle.     Oil  of  Lavender  is  very  efficient. 

125.  Q.  In  the  use  of  Paris  green,  what  quantity  should  be  applied  ? 
A.  On  an  average  one  pound  to  twenty-five  or  thirty  of  plaster  or  lime, 

or  one  tablespoon ful  to  fuur  gallons  of  water. 
Paii8  Green.       126  Q.  Name  the  six  or  seven  insecticides  in  most  general  use,  attach- 
ing suggestive  prices  for  same? 

Paris  green about    30  cents  per  pound. 

Slug  shot "        25     "      " 

Hellebore "        25     "       " 

London  purple "        20     "      "        " 

Persian  insect  powder "        75     "       "        " 

Hammond  thrip  juice. 


Paris  Green. 


QUERIES   AXD   ANSWERS.  29 

127.  Q  Do  you  i-ecommend  applying  insectitcides  in  powder  or  solu-  Water. 
tion? 

A.  Try  both  ways,  water  ou  small  areas,  powder  on  large  tracts. 

128.  Q.  Does  water  act  as  a  fertilizer  ?  Water. 
A.  Impure  water  does  because  it  contains  fertilizing  matter  absorbed 

from  decaying  material.     Pure  water  acts  in  a  fertilizing  way  only  by  the 
gases  which  it  contains. 

129.  Q.  Is  rain  water  of  a  fertilizing  character?  Rain  Water. 
A.  Yes;  as  it  contains  ammonia,  which  it  absorbs  during  its  passage 

through  the  air. 

130.  Q.  Is  there  any  foundation  for  the  proverb  that  snow  is  the  poor  Snow, 
man's  manure? 

A.  There  is,  as  snow  in  falling  absorbs  more  fertilizing  elements  than 
the  same  amount  of  rain,  and  when  resting  on  the  earth  acts  as  a  blanket 
to  stop  the  ammoniacal  emanation  from  the  soil. 

131.  Q.  Does  a  large  crop  of  cedar-tree  berries  and  other  wild  bird  fruit  Severe 
indicate  the  approach  of  a  severe  Winter?  Winter. 

A.  No,  not  necessarily  ;  it  simply  Is  the  resultant  effect  of  a  previously 
mild  Winter.  After  a  cold  Winter  there  often  follows  a  mild  one,  and  the 
berries  then  afford  a  good  supply  of  food  for  birds. 

133.  Q.  What  is  dew  ?  Dew. 

A.  It  is  water  condensed  from  the  atmosphere  and  deposited  upon 
bodies  cooler  than  the  atmosphere. 

133.  Q.  Why  are  cloudy  nights  less  dewy  than  clear  nights?  Kadiation. 
A.  Because  clouds  reducing  radiation  prevent  objects  parting  with  as 

much  heat  as  they  would  if  radiation  was  uninterrupted. 

134.  Q.  Why  is  it  that  gravel  walks  are  in  the  morning  found  dry,  Radiation. 
while  the  grass  on  both  sides  is  wet  with  dew  ? 

A.  Because  gravel  does  not  radiate  as  rapidly  as  grass,  therefore  does 
not  become  a  depository  of  dew. 

135.  Q.  Why  is  tlie  subject  of  dew  one  of  much  importance  to  the  gar-  i>ew. 
dener  ? 

A.  Because  the  study  of  the  subject  impresses  upon  the  gardener  the 
fact  that  the  atmosphere  contains  a  quantity  of  moisture,  and  that  by 
keeping  his  garden  soil  loose  that  air  may  enter  it  he  may  in  dry  seasons 
'profit  by  the  natural  moisture  of  the  atmosphere. 

136.  Q.  What  is  white  frost?  Proat. 
A.  It  is  frozen  dew. 

137.  Q.  Why  is  moonlight  said  to  be  cold?  Cold  Night. 
A.  Because  on  moonlight  nights  the  radiation  is  rapid,  there  are  no 

clouds  to  stop  it. 

138.  Q.  Which  is  the  leading  fruit-growing  section  of  the  country?         Fruits. 
A.  Astonishing  as  has  been  the  increase  in  fruit  growing  in  the  old 

States,  it  cannot  be  compared  to  the  astonishing  developments  in  California, 
one  day's  shipment  in  1893  from  Los  Angeles,  California,   being  two 


30 


QUERIES  a:sd  answers. 


Ijme. 


Lime. 


Ashes. 


Stable 
Manure. 


Soils. 


Soil 
Substances 


Subsoil. 

Peat. 
Peat. 

Alluvium. 
Rotation, 


Chemical 
Action. 


hundred  aud  ten  cars  of  green  and  canned  fruit,  at  an  average  valuation 
of  $6000,  or  one  and  one-quarter  millions  of  dollars. 

A  single  California  grower  of.Bartlette  pears  shipped  in  1892  seventy- 
five  cars  from  the  trees  of  one  ranch. 

139.  Q.  Why  is  it  that  lime  can  be  advantageously  applied  to  many 
soils? 

A.  Because  by  its  chemical  action  it  sets  free  ammonia  from  depths 
below  the  reach  of  the  plow. 

140.  Q.  How  should  ordinary  lime  be  applied  ? 

A.  It  should  be  first  reduced  to  a  powder  by  a  slacking  process,  and,  ' 
when  perfectly  dry,  spread  evenly  upon  the  surface,  care  being  taken  to 
break  any  lumps. 

141.  Q.  Of  what  value  are  unleached  wood  ashes  as  a  fertilizer? 

A.  Valuing  potash  at  5  cents  per  pound,  and  insoluble  phosphoric  acid 
at  5  cents  per  pound,  hardwood  ashes,  as  produced  in  ordinary  stoves,  is 
worth  about  $12  per  ton. 

142.  Q.  Is  it  proper  to  apply  stable  manure  simultaneously  with  lime? 
A.  No  ;  no  manure  of  any  kind  should  be  applied  with  lime,  as  its  value 

would  be  reduced.     It  would  be  best  not  to  apply  such  manure  for  two 
or  three  months  after  an  application  of  lime. 

143.  Q.  What  constitutes  a  loamy  soil  ? 

A.  Loam  is  a  mixed  material  of  earth  formed  of  disintegrated  rocks 
and  generally  found  removed  from  the  locality  of  its  origin.  It  is  more 
fertile  than  clay,  containing  more  vegetable  matter. 

144.  Q.  What  are  the  two  principal  substances  in  soil  ? 

A.  The  organic,  as  oxygen,  hydrogen,  carbon  and  nitrogen,  products 
of  substances  once  endowed  with  life.  The  inorganic,  wholly  mineral,  as 
oxygen,  sulphur,  phosphorus,  carbon,  silica,  potash,  lime,  soda,  and  iron. 

145.  Q.  Is  a  good  subsoil  important  to  a  garden  ? 

A.  Very  important,  as  a  clay,  near  the  surface,  keeps  the  surfiice  satu- 
rated with  water  after  a  rain,  causing  it  to  be  cold,  or  if  the  subsoil  be  of 
gravel  and  near  the  surface  it  passes  off  surface  moisture  too  rapidly. 

148.  Q.  How  may  peaty  soils  be  improved  ? 

A.  By  draining  and  by  burning  the  surface. 

147.  Q.  How  are  peaty  soils  formed  ? 

A.  They  are  composed  of  mosses  and  water  plants  mixed  with  sand 
and  clay  deposited  by  water,  the  whole  amalgamated  into  a  spongy  mass.  , 

148.  Q.  How  are  alluvial  soils  formed? 

A.  By  a  deposit  of  sand  and  earth  by  water.  These  soils  are  generally 
remarkably  fertile. 

149.  Q.  Why  is  rotation  of  crops  practiced  ? 

A.  Various  plants  require  different  foods  ;  without  rotation  a  soil  would 
be  exhausted  of  those  elements  mostly  used  by  the  plant  cultivated. 

150.  Q.  Why  do  different  results  follow  the  application  of  the  same  ma- 
nure upon  soils  apparently  similar? 

A.  Because  of  distinct  chemical  action  in  the  soil  of  different  localities, 


QUERIES  AND  ANSWERS.  31 

and  even  of  different  fields,  and  because  of  a  difference  in  the  degree  and 
character  of  fertilizing  elements  remaining  in  tlie  soil  from  previous  manur- 
ings. 

151.  Q.  What  are  the  inorganic  constituents  ?  Plant 

A.  They  are  the  mineral  portions  of  plants  taken  into  their  circulation,  Constituents. 
as  potash  or  lime. 

152.  Q.  How  is  potash  extracted  from  plants  ?  Potash. 
A.  It  is  procured  from  wood  ashes.    It  is  clear,  therefore,  that  wood 

ashes  is  a  valuable  fertilizer. 

153.  Q.  How  is  soda  obtained  from  plants  ?  Soda. 
A.  It  is  found  most  largely  in  the  ashes  of  sea  weeds,  but  is  present  in 

small  quantity  in  the  ashes  of  all  plants. 

154.  Q.  How  is  lime  obtained  from  plants.  Lime. 
A.  From  the  ashes,  same  as  potash  and  soda,  as  it  forms  a  part  of  all 

vegetable  growth. 

155.  Q.  What  is  phosphate  of  lime  ?  Phosphate  of 
A.  It  is  a  combination  of  phosphoric  acid  with  lime.     It  is  the  princi-  ^"*«* 

pal  portion  of  bones,  the  other  portions  being  gelatine  and  fat. 

156.  Q.  From  whence  do  plants  obtain  their  phosphate  of  lime?  Phosphate. 
A.  It  is  found  in  a  limited  extent  in  nearly  all  soils,  but  it  is  artificially 

applied  in  the  form  of  bone  dust,  Charleston  and  Florida  rock. 

157.  Q.  How  do  plants  obtain  hydrogen?  Hydrogen. 
A.  From  water,  by  the  agency  of  their  leaves,  tissues  and  roots. 

158.  Q.  From  whence  do  plants  obtain  nitrogen?  Nitrogen. 
A.  Principally  through  their  roots,  taken  up  in  a  form  of  ammonia.    It 

is  found  in  the  form,  of  vegetable  albumen  and  gluten  and  in  the  seeds  of 
plants.    Plants  also  respire  nitrogen  by  their  leaves. 

159.  Q.  How  is  it  that  there  is  such  a  variety  of  vegetable  products?      Combina- 
A.  Because  of  combinations  in  varying  proportions  between  simple  *^*»^^* 

elements. 

160.  Q.  What  are  the  organic  constituents  of  plants  ?  Organic 

A.  They  are  the  products  of  vegetable  life,  examples  being  starch,  Constituents. 
sugar,  and  gum. 

161.  Q.  What  is  hydrogen  ?  Hydrogen. 
A.  Hydrogen,  like  oxygen,  is  known  in  a  state  of  gas,  and  is  found  in 

water  and  all  combinations  of  animal  and  vegetable  substances. 

163.  Q.  What  is  nitrogen  ?  Nitrogen. 

A.  Nitrogen  is  also  a  gas,  without  smell,  taste  or  color,  and  is  found  in 
the  atmosphere  and  in  all  animal  and  some  vegetable  substances. 

163.  Q.  How  do  plants  get  their  carbon  ?  Carbon. 
A.  Carbon  in  the  form  of  carbonic  acid  gas  is  absorbed  from  the  air  by 

plants,  and  to  a  small  extent  is  taken  by  the  roots  from  decaying  vege- 
table matter. 

164.  Q.  How  do  plants  get  their  oxygen  ?  Oxygen. 
A.  From  water,  which  they  imbibe  through  their  roots  and  by  their 

process  of  leaf  inspiration.  They  also  give  out  oxygen  when  it  is  in 
excess. 


32 


QUERIES  AND   ANSWERS. 


Plant 
Growth. 

!Element. 


Carbon. 


Oxygen. 


Treatment  of 
Manure. 


Manure 
Odor. 


Horse  Dung. 


Nitrogen. 


Sulphuric 
Acid. 


Pliopphate  of 
Lime. 


Guano. 


TJarnyard 
Manure. 


165.  Q.  What  are  the  principal  chemicals  influencing  plant  growth  ? 
A.  Carbon,  oxygen,  nitrogen,  and  hydrogen. 

166.  Q.  What  is  an  element  ? 

A.  An  element  is  a  body  composed  of  one  kind  of  matter.  Carbon, 
oxygen,  hydrogen  and  nitrogen  are  elements,  but  when  combined  with 
other  substances  the  new  formations  are  called  compounds. 

167.  Q.  What  is  carbon  ? 

A.  It  is  an  element  forming  a  large  proportion  of  vegetable  substance. 
A  familiar  form  of  carbon  is  charcoal. 

168.  Q.  What  is  oxygen? 

A.  An  element  known  only  in  a  state  of  gas.  It  is  without  taste, 
smell  or  color  ;  it  is  found  in  water,  air,  and  in  minerals,  and  is  necessary 
to  the  continuance  both  of  plant  and  animal  life. 

169.  Q.  Should  manure  be  kept  in  piles  or  heaps? 
A.  Yes,  and  covered  up  with  soil,  as  by  putrefaction  in  the  open  air,  five 

per  cent,  of  the  nutritive  matter  will  be  lost  in  a  month,  whereas,  if  piled 
and  covered,  the  gases  are  cooled  and  absorbed  by  the  external  covering. 

170.  Q.  Why  do  manure  heaps  emit  a  pungent  odor? 

A.  Because  of  the  gases  generated  in  fermentation,  principally  sul- 
phuretted and  phosphuretted  hydrogen. 

171.  Q.  Why  is  horse  dung  hotter  than  the  excrement  from  cows? 

A.  The  excrement  of  horses  fed  on  grain  contains  a  greater  amount  of 
nitrogen  and  less  water  than  that  from  other  farm  animals,  consequently 
it  ferments  more  rapidly 

172.  Q.  What  effect  has  nitrogen  on  plants? 

A.  It  increases  the  foliage,  lengthens  the  stems  of  the  plants,  and  pro- 
longs their  growth. 

173.  Q.  Why  is  sulphuric  acid  applied  to  bones  intended  for  fertilizing? 
A.  Because  the  phosphate  of  lime  in  the  bone   is  the  chief  manurial 

substance  and  a  larger  portion  of  it  is  made  quickly  active  as  plant  food 
by  the  application  of  the  sulphuric  acid.  The  resultant  of  the  bones  thus 
treated  is  afterwards  known  as  superphosphate  of  lime. 

174.  Q.  Is  phosphate  of  lime  soluble  ? 
A.  It  is  very  slowly  soluble,  especially  in  dry  seasons.   Superphosphate 

of  lime  is  extremely  soluble.  Phosphate  of  lime  continues  to  exercise  a 
slow  but  beneficial  effect  upon  fertility,  while  superphosphate  of  lime, 
expending  itself  in  half  the  period,  is  a  more  profitable  application. 

175.  Q.  What  is  Peruvian  guano? 

A.  It  is  the  excrement  from  sea  birds,  and  when  good  contains  lime, 
potash,  Boda,  sulphuric  acid,  phosphoric  acid,  and  nitrogen,  the  two  last 
named  being  the  most  valuable. 

176.  Q.  Is  it  true  that  land  never  tires  of  barnyard  manure? 

A.  Yes,  it  is  ;  because  stable  dung  contains  all  the  ingredients  and  is  in 
a  state  ready  almost  for  immediate  use  by  growing  plants.  Sometimes, 
however,  it  is  advantageous  to  cease  the  use  of  farmyard  manure  and 


QUERIES   AND  ANSWERS.  33 

apply  manufactured  fertilizers  to  reduce  the  number  of  insects  and  to 
aftbrd  an  opportunity  to  cleanse  the  soil  of  weeds. 

177.  Q.  Do  the  qualities  of  animal  excrement  difter  ?  Excrement. 
A.  Very  widely  ;  depending  not  only  on  the  food  supplied,  but  on  the 

race  ;  as  cows,  horses,  pigs  and  sheep  require  and  assimilate  or  reject  dif- 
ferent chemical  constituents. 

178.  Q.  What  effect  has  lime  on  plants  ? 

A.  It  generally  shortens  the  period  of  growth  and  hastens  the  time  of  Lime, 
ripening. 

179.  Q.  Is  there  a  varying  influence  depending  upon  the  moon's  phases  The  Moon. 
exercised  on  vegetation  ? 

A.  No  ;  not  to  the  slightest  degree.  The  peasantry  of  all  nations, 
from  days  of  earliest  record  to  the  present  day,  have  such  a  belief,  and 
regulate  seed  sowing,  fence  making,  roofing,  killing  of  meat,  and  other 
farm  and  domestic  duties  by  the  moon's  phases  ;  but  there  is  not,  to  any 
degree,  any  foundation  for  the  practice. 

Analogous  to  this  there  is  the  belief  that  it  is  dangerous  to  sleep  under 
the  moon's  rays,  and  that  insane  persons  are  more  visibly  affected  during 
certain  conditions  of  the  moon  ;  but  this  is  an  exploded  idea. 

180.  Q.  What  are  the  properties  of  light  on  vegetation  1  i.ig:ht. 
A.  Light  has  three  properties  : 

(1).  Luminosity. 

(2).  Heat. 

(3.)  A  chemical  property  termed  actinism. 

181.  Q.  What  effect  have  the  rays  of  the  sun  upon  vegetation  ?  Sun  Effect. 
A.  The  luminous  rays  excite  and  quicken  the  vital  action  of  growing 

plants  by  which  they  decompose  carbonic  acid  gas. 

182.  Q.  What  are  the  effects  of  solar  heat?  Solar  Heat. 
A.  It  influences  vegetation  from  the  shooting  of  the  germ  to  the  perfec- 
tion of  the  fruit  or  seed  ;  under  solar  heat  the  flowers  of  plants  consume 

oxygen  while  at  the  same  time  the  leaves  are  emitting  it. 

183.  Q.  What  is  the  efi"ect  of  actinism?  Actinism. 
A.  It  quickens  vegetation.     Seeds  will  germinate  hi  darkness,  but  to 

vegetate  freely  they  must  have  light. 

184.  Q.  What  is  the  distinction  between  germination  and  vegetation  ?    Germination 
A.  Germination  is  the  putting  forth  of  a  bud  or  germ.     Vegetation  is; 

the  condition  of  subsequent  growth. 

185.  Q.  Is  it  economical  to  make  liquid  manure  by  soaking  stable  ma-  Liquid 
nure  in  vats  of  water.  Manure. 

A.  Yes,  because  the  valuable  portions  of  the  manure  become  thoroughly 
amalgamated  by  fermentation,  and  the  process  of  decomposition  is  com- 
pleted before  the  manure  is  applied  to  the  crop.  Manure,  in  liquid  form, 
is  very  thoroughly  and  efficiently  applied  to  the  soil. 

186.  Q.  Why  does  decaying  cabbage  smell  so  badly  ?  Vegetable 
A.  Because  of  the  escape  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas.  Decay. 


1 "'' 

Vegetation. 


u 


QUERIES   AND    ANSWERS. 


Autumn 
Coloring  of 
Leaves. 


Glucose. 


Paris  Green. 


FertiUty  of 
Liand. 


Condition  of 
Farmers. 


Ag^cultural 
depression. 


Farm 
Uislilte. 


Aerricultural 
Iklachiuery. 


Bailroads. 


187.  Q.  Is  frost  the  cause  of  the  brilliant  coloring  of  Autumn  leaves  ? 
A.  No  ;  generally  a  physico-chemical  phenomenon  allied  to  the  ripening 

of  fruit,  a  decrease  of  vital  power,  resulting  often  from  injury,  inflicted  in 
early  growth,  as  from  lightning  stroke,  barking  by  cattle,  from  soil  stamp- 
ing by  cattle, or  occasionally  it  is  the  result  of  a  want  of  nutrition  conse- 
quent on  a  hot  dry  Summer  and  Autumn.  At  other  times,  consequent 
upon  the  swelling  of  the  next  year's  buds  at  the  base  of  the  leaf  stems, 
cutting  off  the  circulation.  These  and  other  physical  causes  render  the 
plant  juices  susceptible  to  chemical  changes,  producing  colors  of  varying 
degree. 

188.  Q.  What  is  glucose? 

A.  A  form  of  sugar  generally  made  from  Indian  corn.  It  naturally 
occurs  in  varying  degrees  in  the  juice  of  plants  and  is  produced  in  large 
quantities  from  Indian  corn  and  used  in  various  commercial  ways.  For 
table  purposes  it  is  not  used,  being  inferior  to  cane  sugar. 

189.  Q.  Is  Paris  green,  being  a  form  of  arsenic,  dangerous  to  use  upon 
potatoes,  tomatoes  and  egg  plants  ? 

A.  Never  dangerous  on  potatoes,  only  dangerous  on  tomatoes  and  egg 
plants  after  they  have  developed  half-sized  fruit,  as  it  might  be  carried  to 
the  table. 

190.  Q.  Is  the  fertility  of  the  land  in  the  old  States  maintained  ? 
A.  No  ;  it  has  decreased. 

First,  there  being  too  much  dependence  placed  upon  commercial  fertil- 
izers, and  second,  through  a  want  of  knowledge  of  the  good  old  agricul- 
ture practices  of  rotation  of  crops  and  green  manuring. 

191.  Q.  Do  farmers  in  the  old  States  live  better  than  formerly  ? 

A.  They  did  much  better  for  fifteen  or  sixteen  years  after  the  war  of 
1861-1865,  but  are  now,  by  reason  of  the  agricultural  depression,  returning 
to  antebellum  conditions  of  domestic  affairs. 

192.  Q.  What  are  the  general  causes  of  the  agricultural  depression  ? 
A.  It  is  a  condition  of  things  which  extends  over  the  entire  agricultural 

world.  The  cause  is  overproduction,  brought  about  by  the  introduction 
of  labor-saving  machines  and  railroad  extension,  leading  to  overcropping. 
The  labor  of  supplying  the  world  with  food  has  been  diminished.  One 
man  now  does  the  work  of  fifty. 

193.  Q.  Why  do  the  young  people  quit  the  farm  ? 

A.  Young  Americans  as  a  rule  are  not  disposed  to  engage  in  the  labori- 
ous work  of  a  farm  ;  they  prefer  to  embark  in  commerce  or  manufactures. 

194.  Q.  Has  there  been  a  profit  to  farmers  by  the  development  of  labor- 
saving  machines  ? 

A.  No  ;  not  a  profit,  only  a  convenience.  The  cheapening  of  farm  pro- 
ducts by  the  use  of  machines  has  been  one  of  the  causes  of  overproduc- 
tion, and  the  prevalent  agricultural  depression. 

195.  Q.  Does  the  building  of  railroads  increase  the  value  of  lands? 

A.  Yes  ;  they  increase  the  value  of  farms  within  a  mile  or  so  of  stations  ; 
but  railroads  often  decrease  lands  laying  further  off,  as  by  the  prolonga- 
tion of  the  tracks  new  competing  territory  is  developed. 


QUERIES  AND  ANSWERS.  35 

196.  Q.  Does  the  development  of  manufacturing  villages  increase  the  Production. 
value  of  the  production  of  the  adjacent  farms? 

A.  Not  to  any  great  extent  ;  not  bej'^ond  the  saving  of  freight  from  other 
points,  as  prices  are  generally  regulated  by  the  rates  prevalent  at  the  large 
centres  of  commercial  trade. 

197.  Q.  Do  the  people  living  in  the  cities  generally  profit  by  the  low  l,ow  Prices, 
prices  brought  about  by  the  agricultural  depression  ? 

A.  No  ;  for  while  the  raising  of  Western  beef  is  almost  unprofitable  to 
the  herdsmen,  the  people  of  the  cities  pay  almost  as  much  as  formerly,  the 
profits  going  to  the  middle  men,  who  by  the  use  of  immense  capital  drive 
out  all  competitors  and  keep  the  retail  prices  up. 

198.  Q.  Is  the  tendency  in  the  old  sections  of  the  country  to  divide  Division  of 
farms  or  to  unite  them  ?  Farms. 

A.  In  the  old  States  to  divide,  farms  going  into  the  hands  of  smaller 
operators. 

199.  Q.  How  much  labor  on  the  large  farms  of  Dakota  does  it  take  Farm  Labor, 
to  provide  bread  for  1000  persons  ? 

A.  The  labor  of  each  man  employed,  estimating  his  employment  as  con- 
tinuous for  twelve  months,  is  5500  bushels.  Another  man's  labor  for  a 
year  converts  this  wheat  into  flour  ;  five  men's  labor  for  a  year  transfers  it 
to  Philadelphia  ;  three  more  convert  it  into  bread  and  sell  it,  thus  ten  men 
working  one  year  produce  bread  for  1000  mouths. 

Continuing  in  this  line  of  calculation  based  upon  the  use  of  labor-sav- 
ing machinery,  if  twenty  men  make  the  clothing,  twenty  more  build  the 
houses,  twenty  more  provide  the  literature  and  amusements,  twenty  more 
manage  the  public  oflices  and  ten  more  provide  miscellaneous  necessi- 
ties, we  thus  have  100  adults  providing  all  the  necessities  for  1000 
mouths.  If  1000  mouths  represent  200  men,  we  perceive  that  while  100 
of  these  men  have  employment  all  the  year  round  the  other  100  are  idle, 
consequent  upon  the  development  of  machine  processes  and  the  expansion 
of  railroads  and  opening  of  new  lands. 

200.  Q.  Are  the  agricultural  lands  in  any  of  the  States  worked  to  their  Agricultural 
full  capacity  ?  Capacity. 

A.  They  are  not  ;  American  farmers  have  no  conception  what  it  is  to 
work  land  to  its  full  capacity  of  production.  The  most  intensely  culti- 
vated gardens  in  the  United  States  do  not  yield  more  than  the  aver- 
age production  of  whole  districts  at  France,  Belgium  and  Holland,  and 
yet  the  quantity  of  grain  harvested  of  crop  1891  was  3,538,000,000 
bushels. 

201.  Q.  Does  subsoiling  pay  ?  Subsoiling. 
A.  Yes;  on  all  lands  having  a  retentive  subsoil,  as  such  holds  so  much 

moisture  as  to  retard  healthy  plant  development,  as  such  soils  also  do  the 
unrestricted  development  of  tap  root  and  deep  running  fibres. 

Such  soils  should  be  broken  up  by  a  subsoil  plow  or  coulter  affixed  to 
a  plow  beam  and  run  in  the  bottom  of  every  open  furrow,  after  a  common 


36  QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS. 

plow.  Anotlier  system  of  breaking  subsoil  oa  fields  where  a  root  crop  is 
contemplated  is,  after  the  field  has  been  plowed  and  harrowed,  to  trench 
out  at  three  feet,  and  in  every  open  trench  to  run  a  subsoil  plow  or  coulter 
breaking  the  hard  part,  apply  the  fertilizer,  ridge  over  by  splitting  the 
standing  ridges,  draw  down  to  a  flat  surface,  and  drill  the  seed  directly 
over  the  fertilizer,  and  over  the  deeply  broken  bed  through  which  will 
freely  drain  all  superfluous  moisture  and  into  which  the  roots  can  deeply 
delve. 

Sandy  soils,  which  do  not  retain  moisture,  nor  offer  impediments  to  the 
downward  development  of  roots  as  carrots,  parsnips  or  mangolds,  do  not 
require  subsoiling. 
Steam  202.  Q.  Why  has  not  steam  plowing  been  popular  in  the  United  States  ? 

Plowing.  ^    YoT  two  reasons  : 

First.  In  the  old  States  the  farms  are  not  large  enough  to  warrant  the 
purchase  of  such  expensive  apparatus,  the  cost  being  $10,000  to  $20,000, 
according  to  style  and  size. 

Second.  On  the  large  farms  of  the  West ;  far  removed  from  well-ap- 
pointed machine  shops,  the  difficulty  in  making  repairs  and  the  difflculty 
in  holding  expert  machinists,  are  all  serious. 

The  writer  has  known  of  the  importation  of  two  complete  sets  of  plow- 
ing engines  and  tackle  of  Fowler's  make,  each  costing  about  $18,000, 
neither  of  which  ever  paid  the  freight. 

The  writer  worked  on  Bloomsdale  farm  during  the  Summers  of  '71  and 
'72,  endeavoring  to  perform  plowing  by  direct  traction  by  the  use  of  a 
three-wheel  rubber-tired  Scotch  engine,  but  gave  up  the  scheme  as  im- 
practicable. 
Systems.  203.  Q.  Describe  briefly  the  methods  of  plowing  by  steam? 

A.  In  Europe  there  are  three  distinct  systems  of  drawing  the  plows, 
harrows,  etc.,  etc. 

First.  The  direct  system,  by  which  self-propelling  steam  engines  pass 
over  the  land  and  drag  the  implements.  This  is  very  wasteful  of  power 
and  impracticable  on  soft  or  slippery  soil. 

Second.  The  rope  and  windlass  system,  under  which  the  locomotive  re- 
mains on  the  headland,  and  pulls  the  implements  back  and  forth,  by 
means  of  a  wire  rope  winding  on  a  drum  beneath  the  engine  and  across 
the  field  to  the  opposite  headland,  where  it  winds  around  a  similar  drum 
on  a  second  engine,  or  around  a  drum  on  an  anchored  windlass.  The  im- 
plements being  in  gangs  of  plows,  cultivators  or  harrows. 

In  New  Jersey  there  has  been  built  a  completely  designed  farm  traction 
engine  for  chopping  the  earth  instead  of  plowing  it.  This  new  system, 
one  of  many  knives  revolving  rapidly,  was  conceived  at  and  first  tested 
on  Bloomsdale  Farm,  August,  1886,  the  chopping  attachment  being  ap- 
plied to  a  steam  farm  spader,  then  being  tried.  The  cutting  arrangements 
are  of  many  independent,  rapidly  revolving  knives,  chopping  out  slivers 
of  earth  something  similar  to  the  chips  of  wood  cut  by  a  steam  planer. 
Such  a  system  of  choppers  does  not  take  so  much  power  as  required  to 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS.  37 

draw  plows  and  it  bids  fair  to  be  practicable,  particularly  as  after  the  pas- 
sage of  the  engine  the  earth  is  left  in  the  condition  of  an  absolutely  perfect 
seed  bed  six  to  eight  inches  deep. 

204.  Q.  In  draining  land  where  there  is  very  slight  declivity  state  the  Draining. 
least  fall  from  which  a  good  result  can  be  expected? 

A.  Half  an  inch  to  every  sixteen  feet,  though  one-quarter  of  an  inch  in 
sixteen  feet  has  been  known  to  work  well  on  a  line  of  open  drain  of  1000 
feet 

205.  Q.  How  shall  I  make  the  cheapest  and  simplest  level  for  use  by  Draining 
ordinary  farm  laborers  in  ditch  digging  ?  Level. 

A.  Decide  first  on  the  pitch  or  declivity  of  the  ditch  or  drain. 

If,  for  example,  one  inch  in  sixteen  feet  is  desired,  then  take  a  sixteen- 
foot  board  and  plane  off  both  edges  perfectly  straight,  and  of  equal  width 
from  end  to  end,  then  with  a  chalk  line  mark  off  on  one  side  an  oblique 
line  from  one  inch  to  nothing  and  rip  out.  Next  procure  a  carpenter's 
spirit  level. 

When  digging  the  ditch,  shovel  the  earth  out  so  that  when  the  leveling 
board  is  placed  with  the  wide  end  down  the  ditch,  it  will  rest  all  of  its 
length  on  the  lower  edge  on  the  earth  and  place  the  carpenter's  spirit 
level  upon  the  top  smooth  edge,  thus  indicating  the  true  level,  when  the 
pitch  will  be  one  inch  every  sixteen  feet  or  five  feet  in  a  1000. 

206.  Q.  Is  there  any  foundation  in  fact  for  the  popular  belief  among  Snperatition. 
horsemen  that  a  horse  with  white  hoofs  must  necessarily  have  soft  feet  ? 

A.  Veterinary  surgeons  say,  if  there  is  any  appreciable  difierence  in 
density  of  pigmented  or  non-pigmented  hoofs  it  is  so  slight  as  to  make  no 
practical  diflference  as  to  soundness  or  usefulness. 

207.  Q.  How  many  acres  does  the  United  States  Land  Oflice  sell  an-  Land  Sales. 
nually  ? 

A.  In  the  year  1889,  the  sales  amounted  to  19,000,000  acres. 

208.  Q.  What  proportion  of  our  agricultural  productions  are  sent  to  Exports. 
foreign  countries? 

A.  About  one-tenth — a  small  proportion  after  all — and  yet  it  is  a  greater 
percentage  than  the  agricultural  exports  of  any  other  country.  This  ex- 
port is  not  likely  to  reach  a  greater  proportion,  as  the  nine-tenths  will 
always  be  needed  at  home,  and  as  many  other  nations  are  sending  to  the 
purchasing  countries  their  surplusses  of  the  same  kind  of  productions. 
Our  export  trade  if  increased  must  be  in  the  line  of  concentrated  articles 
as  cheese,  butter,  canned  fruit  and  vegetables.  The  annual  value  of  our 
farm  productions  exported  amounts  to  about  $400,000,000,  with  the  agri- 
cultural imports  just  about  equal  to  the  exports. 

209.  Q.  Among  the  importations,  what  agricultural  products  are  they  American 
which  American  farms  should  produce  ?  Productions. 

A.  First.  Sugar,  the  amount  imported  being  equal  in  value  to  our  wheat 
and  flour  exported. 

Second.  Flax,  hemp  and  other  fibre  imports,  which  amount  in  value  to 
nearly  the  total  value  of  our  boasted  cotton  crops. 

Third.  Fruit,  of  which  $20,000,000  worth  are  annually  imported. 


33 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS. 


210.  Q.  What  is  the  proportion  to  each  inhabitant  of  corn  consumed 
Corn  and         domestically  and  in  the  arts,  in  the  United  States? 

A.  About  thirty-five  bushels,  an  amount  greater  than  the  per  capita 
consumption  of  any  cereal  in  the  world. 
Com.  211.  Q.  What  is  the  average  yield  per  acre  of  corn  in  the  United  States? 

A.  Twenty-four  bushels  or  about  one  and  one-sixth  acres  grown  to 
each  one  of  the  population  of  sixty-five  million,  the  product  valued  at 
$675,000,000. 
Exports.  212.  Q.  What  proportion  of  corn  and  cornmeal  is  exported  ? 

A.  Not  over  four  per  cent. 
Wheat.  213.  Q.  How  much  wheat  is  annually  grown  in  the  United  States? 

A.  460,000,000  bushels,  grown  on  35,000,000  acres. 
Exports.  214.  Q.  How  much  is  annually  exported  ? 

A.  About  125,000,000  bushels. 
"Wiieat  215.  Q.  Is  the  exportation  of  wheat  likely  to  increase  ? 

Export.  ^    jj^Q .   ^jjg  western  nations  of  Europe  are  our  only  customers,  and 

they  draw  from  every  quarter  of  the  globe.     The  150,000,000  bushels 
required  in  excess  of  their  production  they  buy  where  they  can  get  it 
the  cheapest,  and  probably  in  the  future  will  purchase  less  from  us. 
Yield.  216.  Q.  What  is  the  average  yield  per  acre  in  the  United  States  ? 

A.  Twelve  bushels. 
Wheat  to  217.  Q.  What  is  the  proportion  between  the  average  acreage  of  wheat 

I'opuiation.   and  the  population  ? 

A.  Something    over    one-half    acre   of    wheat    to    each    inhabitant — 
or  7  bushels  to  each  inhabitant. 
Oats.  218.  Q.  How  many  acres  are  annually  cultivated  in  oats  ? 

A.  About  21,000,000. 
Oats.  219.  Q.  What  is  the  average  production  per  acre  of  oats? 

A.  Twenty-seven  bushels. 
Buckwheat.       220.  Q.  Of  buckwheat,  how  much  is  grown  annually  ? 

A.  About  1,000,000  acres,  average  twelve  bushels  to  the  acre. 
Barley.  221.  Q.  What  quantity  of  barley  is  grown  in  the  United  States  ? 

A.  3,000,000  acres,  producing  twenty-one  bushels  to  the  acre. 
Kye.  222.  Q.  What  is  the  annual  area  of  rye  in  this  country  ? 

A.  Slightly  less  than  3,000,000,  producing  an  average  of  twelve  bushels 
to  the  acre. 
Cereals.  223.  Q.  What  is  the  average  production  of  all  the  cereals  per  head  of 

our  population  of  65,000,000? 

A.  About  fifty-two  bushels  per  head,  immensely  greater  than  that  of 
any  other  country  in  the  world. 
Potatoes.  224.  Q.  What  is  the  annual  production  of  potatoes  in  this  country  ? 

A.  About  200,000,000  bushels,  produced  on  2,750,000  acres,  an  average 
of  nearly  3  bushels  to  each  inhabitant.     Total  crop  valued  at  $91,000,000. 
Hay.  225.  Q.  How  much  hay  is  produced  in  the  United  States? 

A.  Nearly  50,000,000  tons  from  about  40,000,000  acres,  the  estimated 
value  of  the  product  being  $400,000,000. 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS.  39 

226.  Q.  What  are  the  agricultural  statistics  of  tobacco  ?  Tobacco. 
A.  Nearly  600,000,000  pounds  grown  on  about  750,000  acres,  valued 

at  $50,000,000. 

227.  Q.  What  are  the  statistics  as  to   farm  live  stock  in  the  United  i-ive  stock. 
States  ? 

A.  The  number  of  animals  taken  from  the  last  report  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  placed  horses  at  14.000,000,  mules  2,300,000,  milch 
cows  at  16,000,000,  oxen  and  beeves  at  37,000,000,  sheep  45,000,000,  and 
hogs  52,000,000,  valued  at  $2,420,000,000. 

228.  Q.  What  is  the  principal  cause  of  fluctuations  in  prices  of  agricul-  Fluctuations 
tural  productions? 

A.  The  varying  meteorological  conditions  of  the  season  of  growth  in 
each  of  the  8000  counties  of  the  Union.  No  legitimate  pursuit  of  man  is 
so  great  a  lottery  as  agriculture. 

229.  Q.  What  plants  are  used  as  salads  ?  Salads. 
A.  Very  little  beyond  lettuce,  endive,  corn  salad,  cress  and  mustard,  is 

known  by  American  gardeners  of  the  wide  variety  of  foliage-bearing 
plants  used  in  Europe  as  salads,  served  uncooked  and  boiled.  Beet  tops, 
succeeding  spinach,  are  a  favorite  dish  in  England. 

Radish  seed  pods,  succeeding  the  pithy  roots,  are,  when  small,  very 
delicate,  and  used  to  a  large  extent  in  France. 

Cardoon,  chicory,  dandelion,  nasturtium,  scurvy  grass,  sorrel,  sea- 
kale,  Swiss  chard,  turnip  tops,  are  all  favorites,  and  their  extended  use, 
adds  much  to  the  profit  of  a.  garden  and  the  enjoyment  of  a  family  in  the 
country. 

230.  Q.  How  is  cauliflower  cultivated  ?  CauUflower. 
A.  This  delicious  plant,  like  broccoli  and  French  artichoke,  is  distin- 
guished from  other  table  vegetables  by  producing  edible  flower  heads.    By 

long  years  of  selection  and  culture  of  some  accidental  natural  variation  of 
this  plant  of  the  cabbage  family  discovered  in  the  Middle  Ages,  the 
flowers  of  the  cauliflower  have  been,  to  a  large  extent,  rendered  abor- 
tive, and  the  flower  stems  multiplied,  shortened  and  thickened  till  they 
have  been  bred  to  form  a  half- globular  compact  crown  or  head  which, 
when  cooked,  is  tender  as  marrow,  and  the  choicest  of  all  esculent  vege- 
tables. Varying  with  climatic  and  soil  conditions,  the  seed  is  sown  at  all 
seasons.  In  hotbeds  at  close  of  Winter,  out  of  doors  when  the  apple  is  in 
bloom,  again  when  the  oak  is  in  full  leaf,  again  at  Midsummer,  and 
again  during  Winter  under  glass.  The  young  plants  are  treated 
the  same  as  cabbage,  and  the  larger  plants  require  the  same  rich  fer- 
tilization and  culture — indeed  more  intense  culture,  as  only  those  cauli- 
flowers are  good  which  are  grown  quickly.  We  ofier  only  seed  of  the 
highest  quality.  The  early  varieties  are  most  likely  to  succeed  in  the 
hands  of  inexperienced  growers.  Sow  the  early  sorts  in  seed-beds 
beginning  of  Autumn,  keep  them  in  a  "cold  frame,"  protected  by  sash 
from  severe  frost  during  the  Winter,  and  transplant  into  deep  and  very 
rich  ground  as  soon  as  frost  ceases.     Handglasses  or  boxes  placed  over 


40 


QUERIES  AND   ANSWERS. 


them  at  night,  when  they  are  put  out,  are  useful.  It  should  be  observed, 
however,  that  success  is  very  uncertain  in  dry  localities.  In  Pennsyl- 
vania the  cauliflower  seldom  heads  well  unless  under  glass,  or  in  cold 
frames.  But  there  is  little  difficulty  in  having  fine  cauliflowers  when 
planted  in  frames  under  glass,  at  close  of  Winter,  so  as  to  advance  them 
ahead  of  the  early  Summer  heat.  The  late  varieties  mature  in  Autumn, 
and  are  sown  at  the  same  time,  and  managed  similarly  to  cabbage.  They 
do  best  in  localities  where  the  atmosphere  is  damp  and  saline,  as  on  the 
coast.  We  may  add  that  cauliflower  can  only  be  grown  on  rich,  well-tilled, 
well-watered  soil,  and  that  it  can  hardly  be  overfed. 
Kokl-Rabi.         231.  Q.  What  is  kohl-rabi? 

A.  This  plant,  used  both  for  table  and  for  cattle  feeding,  is  a  cabbage  in 
which  the  cultural  development  has  been  directed  to  the  stalk,  not  to  the 
leaf.  The  enlarged  stalks,  taking  the  globular  form  of  turnips,  are  more 
hardy  and  nutritious  than  turnips. 

Any  good  soil  will  produce  a  crop,  the  plants  for  which  may  be  grown 
like  cabbage  in  seed-beds  for  transplanting,  or  sown  in  permanent  posi- 
tion in  three-feet  rows. 

Sow  the  seed  for  table  use  at  any  period  when  cabbage  may  be  sown. 
Drill  in  rows  at  two  feet  and  thin  to  six  inches. 

For  cattle  feeding  drill  the  seed  in  Midsummer  for  Autumn  develop- 
ment.    Yield  300  to  400  bushels  to  the  acre. 
Egg  Plant.  232.  Q.  Give  cultural  directions  for  egg  plant. 

This  seed  is  generally  sown  under  glass  and  transplanted  to  the  field  two 
or  three  weeks  after  corn-planting  season.  The  plants  are  set  in  rows  of 
five  feet  and  at  three  feet  in  the  row.  The  land  cannot  be  too  highly  fer- 
tilized for  this  crop — very  short,  thoroughly  rotted  stable  manure  or  simi- 
lar preparation  is  best ;  strong  manure,  or  hot.  rank  manure,  is  unsuitable. 
Sow  in  hotbeds  or  other  protected  place  early  in  the  Spring ;  when  up 
two  or  three  inches  transplant  into  small  pots  (which  plunge  in  earth),  so 
as  to  get  stocky,  well-rooted  plants,  and  late  in  the  Spring,  or  not  till  the 
commencement  of  Summer,  unless  the  weather  be  warm,  transplant  into 
thoroughly  worked,  rich  and  recently  well-manured  ground.  A  good 
plan  is  to  open  a  deep,  wide  trench,  filling  it  nearly  with  manure  ;  restore 
the  earth  and  plant  therein,  placing  the  plants  three  feet  apart  each  way. 
The  seed  does  not  vegetate  freely  ;  repeated  sowings  are  sometimes  neces- 
sary. It  is  almost  useless  to  attempt  the  culture  of  egg  plant  unless  the 
proper  attention  be  given.  In  growing  the  egg  plant  in  the  Summer  and 
Autumn  mouths  in  Florida,  great  trouble  is  sometimes  experienced  in 
getting  a  stand  of  plants  owing  to  the  excessive  heat  and  beating  rains. 
This  difficulty  can  be  largely  overcome  by  shading  the  ground  where  the 
seed  is  sown.  If  sown  in  beds,  the  shading  may  be  accomplished  by 
means  of  frames  covered  with  seed-bed  cloth,  or  by  blinds  of  slats  or 
common  boards  properly  supported  over  the  beds  to  cut  off  the  direct  rays 
of  the  sun.  If  the  seed  is  sown  where  the  plants  are  to  remain  (a  bad 
practice)  the  shading  may  be  done  by  using  palmetto  fans  or  leaves,  plac- 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS.  41 

ing  them  one  each  on  the  north  and  south  side  of  the  hill,  the  tops  meeting 
over  the  seed.  This  plan  is  used  by  some  of  the  most  successful  growera 
in  the  Gulf  States. 

About  3000  plants  are  required  to  plant  an  acre.  These  plants  should 
produce  an  average  of  three  to  four  fruits,  weighing  two  to  three  pounds 
each.  Our  selected  seeds  are  always  taken  from  fruit  weighing  eight  ♦.o 
ten  pounds  each  ;  we  have  had  them  of  thirteen  pounds  in  weight.  Com- 
mission merchants  in  Philadelphia  pay  the  market  gardener  about,  on  an 
average,  one-and-a-half  cents  per  fruit.  The  highest  prices  are  eight  and 
ten  cents  per  fruit. 

Florida  fruit  arrives  in  Philadelphia  the  latter  part  of  November,  and 
commands  $6  to  $8  per  barrel  crate.  Earlier  in  the  Autumn  the  market 
is  supplied  by  fruit  from  Jersey.  Towards  Christmas  the  price  of  Florida 
egg  plant  rises  to  $10  per  barrel  crate  and  then  declines  by  April  to  $6  to 
$8,  and  by  May  to  85,  after  which  they  are  likely  to  arrive  in  a  damaged 
condition  and  be  worthless.  Egg  plant  fruit  can  be  grated  and  canned 
for  "Winter  use. 

233.  Q.  Why  don't  I  succeed  with  lettuce  ?  Lettuce. 
A.  To  have  fine  lettuce  in  early  Spring,  sow  in  seed-bed  from  com- 
mencement to  middle  of  Autumn.     During  Winter  protect  the  plants  by 

a  box  covered  with  window  or  other  sash,  or  with  litter,  as  they  stand  on 
the  ground.  Early  in  the  Spring  transplant  some  into  rich  ground.  The 
others  force  under  the  sash.  Or  in  early  Spring  sow  in  a  hotbed  and 
transplant,  but  Autumn-sown  plants  are  best.  For  a  later  supply,  sow  in 
drills  when  the  cherry  is  in  bloom  ;  when  up  a  few  inches  thin  out,  leav- 
ing plants  at  proper  distances  ;  this  is  a  better  plan  than  transplanting 
late  in  the  season.  For  this  purpose  use  Bloomsdale  Reliable,  Landreths' 
Forcing,  Virginia  Solid  Header  and  Heat-resisting  varieties,  which  we  have 
selected  as  standard  sorts  by  reason  of  their  ability  to  resist  heat  and  the 
longer  time  they  are  in  condition  for  the  table  than  some  other  kinds 
which  shoot  to  seed  as  soon  as  the  head  is  formed. 

234.  Q.  How  should  asparagus  be  planted  ?  Asparagus. 
A.  This  plant  succeeds  best  on  sandy  soil,  though  reclaimed  marsh 

land,  when  freed  from  water,  is  admirably  adapted  to  its  culture  ;  the 
lighter  the  soil  the  earlier  the  plants  shoot  in  the  Spring.     Of  whatever  ♦' 

character  the  ground  may  be,  it  should  be  well  cleared  of  trash  or  other 
incumbrances,  and  in  a  good  state  of  cultivation.  The  land  is  prepared 
by  opening  deep  trenches  six  or  eight  feet  apart,  by  passing  a  two-horse 
plow  twice  to  each  furrow,  throwing  a  furrow  slice  to  the  right  and  left, 
and  finally  cleaning  and  deepening  the  furrow  by  a  third  passage  of  the 
plow.  The  roots  are  planted  in  the  bottom  of  the  furrow,  at  eighteen 
inches  apart,  and  covered  by  an  inch  of  soil. 

Stable  manure  may  be  applied  in  the  furrow  before  the  roots  are  placed, 
or  on  top  of  the  roots  after  they  are  covered. 

North  of  the  latitude  of  Washington,  Spring  planting,  when  the  apple 
is  in  bloom,  is  considered  to  give  the  best  results,  but  south  of  Washing- 


42  QUERIES  AND   ANSWERS. 

ton  Fall  planting  has  proven  the  best.  We  can  ship  asparagus  roots, 
from  October  to  March,  to  any  point  within  1000  miles,  but  they  must  be 
planted  as  soon  as  received,  as  if  exposed  to  the  air  are  soon  injured  in 
vigor. 

If  the  rows  be  six  feet  apart,  about  GOOO  plants  are  required  to  plant  an 
acre  ;  if  at  eight  feet  apart,  4000  plants  are  required  to  the  acre. 

One-year-old  well-developed  roots  are  better  than  older  ones.  When 
well  planted  and  fertilized  a  cutting  of  stalks  can  be  made  about  three 
times  the  second  year  alter  planting.  Cutting  should  not  be  continued 
too  late  in  the  Spring  or  the  roots  will  become  exhausted  if  the  shoots  are 
not  allowed  to  develop  fully,  for  of  course  it  must  be  understood  the  leaves 
are  the  lungs  of  the  plants.  After  cutting  has  ceased  the  ground  should 
be  worked  by  plowing  away  from  the  rows  and  manuring  alongside, 
after  which  the  earth  should  be  thrown  back.  Twenty  bushels  of  salt  to 
the  acre,  sown  broadcast,  may  be  used  to  advantage  annually.  The  roots 
of  asparagus  (though  some  penetrate  six  and  eight  feet  in  depth)  are, 
many  of  them,  inclined  to  run  near  the  surface  ;  the  cultivator  should  ac- 
cordingly, as  far  as  possible,  aim  at  flat  culture.  Early  crops,  like  peas, 
may  be  profitably  grown  between  the  rows  of  asparagus  for  the  first  two 
or  three  years.  Asparagus  can  be  bleached  and  made  especially  tender 
by  mulching  or  covering  with  six  inches  of  fine  cut  hay,  straw  or  leaves. 

A  season's  cutting  covers  eight  to  ten  weeks,  and  profitable  cutting 
continues  up  to  ten  years  from  planting,  after  which  time  the  beds  are 
considered  unprofitable  by  market  gardeners. 

From  800  to  1500  two  pound  bunches  of  asparagus  can  be  cut  to  the 
acre,  and  a  good  field-hand  can  cut  150  bunches  in  a  day.  In  the  Philadel- 
phia market  asparagus  bunches  are  always  made  to  weigh  two  pounds, 
and  vary  from  ten  to  fifty  stalks  to  the  bunch,  according  to  condition  of 
culture.  A  skillful  workman  can  trim,  wash,  pack  and  tie  about  300 
bunches  in  a  day.  At  the  New  York  market  green-pointed  "grass"  is 
demanded,  the  Philadelphia  market  calls  for  white-pointed.  Both  colors 
are  found  in  the  same  field.  The  price  obtained  in  the  Philadelphia 
market  by  truckers  from, commission  men  is  on  an  average  ten  cents  per 
bunch,  never  lower  than  eight  cents,  though  sometimes  the  price  paid  by 
commission  men  is  forty  to  fifty  cents. 

Asparagus  is  always  in  demand,  such  a  thing  as  the  market  being 
seriously  glutted  with  it  never  occurs.  The  variety  known  as  tlie  Colossal 
is  the  best,  producing  shoots  often  one  inch  in  diameter,  and  sometimes 
as  many  as  fifty  to  the  plant. 

One  pound  of  asparagus  seed  will  produce  2500  plants.  The  seed  may 
be  sown  when  the  cherry  is  in  bloom  or  among  the  earliest  operations  in 
the  Spring,  and  is  usually  drilled  in  rows  of  ten  inches.  If  the  land  be 
friable,  fertile  and  well  cultivated,  these  seedlings  can  be  set  out  the  next 
Spring. 

235.  Q.  Give  directions  as  to  planting  French  artichoke? 

A.  This  plant  may  be  grown  from  seed  sown  when  the  cherry  is  in 


QUKRIES   AND   ANSWERS.  43 

bloom  or  from  suckers  taken  from  established  plants.  If  the  seed  be  sown 
the  plants  may  be  raised  in  beds  and  transplanted.  The  seedlings  or  sets 
should  be  planted  out  in  rows  at  four  feet  apart,  at  eighteen  inches  to  the 
row.  Artichoke  in  a  congenial  climate  will  stand  for  several  years,  but 
success  with  it  in  the  United  States  cannot  be  expected  north  of  the 
cotton  belt.     It  is  a  French  vegetable,  the  flower  buds  of  which  are  eaten. 

236.  Q.  How  are  mushrooms  grown  ?  Musiirooms. 
A.  The  culture  of  mushrooms  to  the  initiated  is  very  easy,  but  it  is  a 

subject  of  much  difficulty  to  the  novice.  We  cannot  attempt  here  to  give 
at  length  the  necessary  directions,  but  refer  the  inquirer  to  some  of  the 
various  publications  upon  the  subject. 

Plant  one  pound  of  spawn  to  the  square  foot.  Kept  on  sale  in  the  form 
of  bricks.  The  spawn  is  planted  in  dark  pits,  caves,  in  outdoor  hotbeds, 
or  on  banks  of  compost.     Per  brick  of  about  1^  pounds,  15  cents. 

Any  mushroom,  or  toad  stool,  the  stem  of  which  underground  springs 
from  a  cup  or  socket,  or  which  has  any  suggestion  of  such  a  socket, 
should  be  set  down  as  poisonous.  The  most  intensely  poisonous  of  mush- 
rooms— the  Amariata  bulbosa  and  the  Amariata  vernus — are  generally 
found  in  the  woods,  though  sometimes  in  the  open  field.  They  are  posi- 
tively deadly,  taking  eflfect  in  about  ten  hours  after  eating. 

237.  Q.  How  are  onion  sets  grown?  Onion  Sets. 
A.  Drill,  when  the  apple  is  in  bloom,  sixty  to  seventy-five  pounds  of 

seed  to  the  acre.  At  Midsummer,  or  whenever  the  tops  die,  remove  the 
small  bulbs,  buttons  or  sets,  as  they  are  indifferently  called,  produced  by 
this  process,  to  a  dry  place.  In  the  Autumn,  or  early  in  the  following 
Spring,  replant  them  in  rows,  the  sets  two  inches  apart,  the  rows  wide 
enough  to  hoe  between  them.  Observe :  If  not  sown  quite  thickly  in  the 
first  instance,  they  attain  too  large  a  size,  and  when  replanted  shoot  to 
seed. 

In  growing  onions  for  the  market,  either  from  seed  or  sets,  an  unusually 
large  size  is  not  to  be  desired,  two  to  three  inches  in  diameter  being  about 
the  most  desirable  size  for  shipping.  A  vigorously  growing  onion  crop 
frequently  can  be  hastened  to  early  ripening  at  near  the  desired  size  by 
simply  stopping  the  vigor  of  growth  by  running  a  scuffle  hoe  under  the 
bulbs  on  one  side  so  as  to  cut  off  one-half  the  roots.  Such  a  course  of 
treatment  will  reduce  the  excess  of  vigor  and  forward  maturity.  If  the 
grower  awaits  the  development  of  mammoth  onions,  or  even  large  ones, 
he  frequently  lets  pass  opportunities  for  paying  sales,  far  more  profitable 
than  afterwards  realized. 

238.  Q.  What  are  Bermuda  onions  ?  Bermuda 
A.  An  early  sort  originally  grown  in  Bermuda— now  largely  grown  in  Onions. 

Florida,  Louisiana  and  Texas  and  some  little  in  Georgia  and  Carolina. 

Down  the  Mississippi,  below  New  Orleans,  100,000  barrels  of  marketable 
onions  are  grown  annually.  All  the  early  ones  formerly  grown  were 
known  as  Creole  onions,  half  round  and  light  red,  but  they  are  fast  being 
supplanted  by  the  Bermudas. 


44 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS. 


The  following  table,  extracted  from  Bulletin  No.  27,  of  the  Louisiana 
State  Experimental  Station,  clearly  shows  the  relative  development  of 
size  and  relative  period  of  maturity  to  that  size.  It  will  be  perceived  at  a 
glance  that  the  Bermudas  were  nearly  twice  as  large  and  fifteen  to  twenty- 
five  days  earlier  than  the  Creole. 

Transplanting  Onions  at  Baton  Rouge. — Sown  in  August,  1893. 


Variety. 


*Red  Bermuda,  transplanted 

Red  Bermuda,  not  transplanted 

White  Bermuda,  transplanted 

White  Bermuda,  not  transplanted 

Louisiana  or  Creole,  transplanted 

Louisiana  or  Creole,  not  transplanted. 

Prize  Taker,  transplanted 

Prize  Taker,  not  transplanted 


Average  Wt. 

Earliness. 

4.5  ounces. 
4.5       " 

April    1 

April  27 

5.5       " 
5 

April  15 
April  30 

3 

2.5       " 

April  25 
April  25 

7.8       " 
8 

May   25 
May   30 

It  will  be  seen  by  this  that  in  two  cases  the  average  weight  was  in- 
creased, and  also  the  bulk  matured  earlier,  besides  this  the  nearly  perfect 
stand  insured  by  transplanting  gave  a  much  increased  total  yield  per 
given  length  of  row.  These  seeds  were  sown  the  last  of  August,  1893, 
and  the  plants  transplanted  when  less  than  one-fourth  inch  in  diameter. 

Fertilizers.         239.  Q.  Why  do  commercial  fertilizers  give  the  best  results  in  wet 
seasons '? 

A.  In  wet  seasons  the  repeated  and  abundant  rains  completely  solve 
the  component  parts,  so  that  neither  in  a  dry  state  nor  in  half  solved  con- 
dition can  they  burn  the  rootlets. 
Germination.     240.  Q.  Why  is  It  that  fresh  seeds  do  not  germinate  as  quickly  as  old 
seeds  ? 

A.  Some  old  seeds  being  perfectly  dry  are  more  susceptible  to  a  less 
degree  of  moisture,  consequently  sprout  quickly. 

241.  Q.  To  what  age  do  seeds  retain  their  vitality? 

A.  That  is  a  hard  question  to  answer,  as  so  much  depends  upon  condi- 
tions of  moisture,  heat  and  soil^-but  as  a  rule  vegetable  seeds  are  entirely 
dead  in  eight  years  for  cabbage,  turnip  and  beet ;  four  j'^ears  for  carrot, 
parsley,  spinach  ;  five  years  for  peas,  beans,  cucumber,  squash,  melons ; 
three  years  for  peppers,  egg  plant,  okra,  corn. 

242.  Q.  Why  do  some  experienced  gardeners  prefer  old  seeds  to  fresh 
ones? 

A.  Old  seeds  having  less  physical  force  do  not  develop  such  vigorous 
plants — do  not  grow  so  rampant,  and  in  the  case  of  melons,  squashes, 
cucumbers,  they  do  not  cover  so  much  ground,  while  setting  more  fruit. 


Vitality  of 

Seeds. 


Old  Seeds 
Preferred. 


*  Twenty  days  ahead  of  the  Creole,  and  four  and  a  half  ounces  against  three  ounces. 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS.  45 

243.  Q.  After  a  field  is  inoculated  by  bringing  to  it  and  incorporating  soU 

with  its  surface  soil  some  soil  from  another  field,  known  to  be  inhabited  inoculation. 
by  bacteria  or  microbes,  what  is  the  subsequent  action  ? 

A.  The  bacteria  or  organisms,  if  they  be  the  right  kind,  cause,  by  some 
unknown  process,  the  roots  of  the  plants  to  develop  minute  nodules  or 
tubercles,  which,  by  some  action,  absorb  nitrogen  from  the  air  and  hold 
it.  Four-fifths  of  the  atmosphere  is  nitrogen.  Consequently  there  is  an 
unlimited  supply,  and  if  this  new  scientific  discovery  can  be  more  thor- 
oughly understood  the  entire  system  of  agriculture  may  be  revolution- 
ized as  completely  as  electricity  has  overturned  former  systems  now  obso- 
lete. 

244.  Q.  Are  wrinkled  and  flattened  varieties  of  peas  sweeter  and  more  Peas. 
delicate  than  smooth  round-seeded  sorts  ? 

A.  The  shriveled  form  of  certain  pea  seed  is  indicative  of  a  sugary 
quality,  just  as  the  shriveled  grains  of  sugar-corn  distinguish  its  quality 
from  the  more  starchy  field  corns.  Many  of  the  wrinkled  peas  possess  a 
shelly  hull,  which,  to  some  people,  make  them  less  desirable  than  the 
Landreth  Extra  Early  or  the  Bloomsdale  pea.  Wrinkled  half-flat  peas 
never  seem  to  possess  the  same  germinative  force  as  hard  round  peas. 

245.  Q.  What  are  the  best  plants  for  green  manuring  ?  Green 

A.  All  vigorous  growers,  which  can  be  plowed  under,  have  a  decided  Manuring. 
fertilizing  influence  upon  soil,  as  the  turning  under  returns  to  the  upper 
soil  all  that  the  plant  had  drawn  from  depths  below  ;  but  if  to  this  can  be 
added  a  stock  of  fertility  derived  from  the  air,  immense  gain  is  made. 
Now  this  can  be  realized  by  growing  plants  of  the  leguminous  family, 
as  Red  clover.  Crimson  clover.  Alfalfa,  Cow  peas,  lupins,  all  of  which, 
beside  being  potash  finders,  have  the  faculty  of  drawing  nitrogen  from 
the  air,  and  adding  to  the  soil  that  which  it  did  not  possess  before. 

246.  Q.  Why  is  inoculation  of  soils  advised?  Soil 

A.  To  start  a  growth  of  bacteria,  such  as  desired.  One  of  the  latest  dis-  inocalation. 
coveries  in  agriculture  is  that  different  kinds  of  plants,  notably  those  of 
the  leguminous  family,  are  aided  in  their  growth  by  distinct  forms  of 
bacteria  or  microbes.  Novr,  a  field  which  has  had  upon  it  a  crop  of 
beans,  continues  for  a  time  to  support  the  bean  microbe,  but  beans  sown 
upon  a  new  field,  however  rich  in  potash  or  phosphoric  acid,  may  want 
,  nitrogen,  which  can  be  obtained  in  considerable  quantity  from  the  air  if 
plenty  of  microbes  be  present  in  the  soil.  By  inoculating  this  new  field 
through  a  top-dressing  of  soil  from  the  old  bean  field,  the  development 
of  microbes  can  be  greatly  advanced  and  the  bean  crop  enlarged  through 
nitrogen  stolen  from  the  air. 

247.  Q.  Is  the  greatest  productiveness  found  in  green  or  wax-podded  Beans. 
beans  ? 

A.  As  a  rule,  in  green-podded  sorts;  but  some  wax  pods  are  exceedingly 
prolific,  but  when  most  so  it  is  at  a  loss  of  quality. 

248.  Q.  How  can  I  kill  crows  and  sparrows  ?  Crows. 
A.  Soak  corn  in  strychnine  water. 


46 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS. 


Beans. 

Com. 
Onion  Sets. 


Asparagus 
Bug. 


Fungicides. 


Insecticides. 


Fungi. 


Insecticides. 


Linae. 


Salt. 


Fungi. 


249.  Q.  Which  is  superior  in  quality,  a  round  green-podded  bean  or 
a  wax-podded  bean  ? 

A.  Tastes  vary.     The  writer  thinks  a  wax  pod  always  tough. 

250.  Q.  Which  is  the  best  sugar  corn  for  an  all-round  sort  ? 
A.  The  Landreth  and  Stowell's  Evergreen. 

251.  Q.  Does  freezing  injure  onion  sets  ? 

A.  Sets  kept  throughout  winter  in  the  latitude  of  Philadelphia  are 
always  frozen,  and  are  not  injured  under  careful  handling,  but  should 
not  be  handled  when  the  frost  is  coming  out  of  them.  If  received  in 
frozen  condition  spread  them  out  to  thaw. 

252.  Q.  Is  there  any  application  which  I  can  make  to  drive  off  the 
asparagus  beetle  from  my  young  asparagus  beds  ? 

A.  Lime  dust  applied  when  the  dew  is  on. 

253.  Q,  What  are  the  most  generally  used  fungicides  ? 

A.  Compounds  of  copper  and  sulphur,  particularly  ;  ammoniacal  car- 
bonates of  copper  and  Bordeaux  mixture. 

254.  Q,  Why  do  some  so-called  insecticides  fail  to  be  effective  ? 

A.  Probably  because  applied  without  any  knowledge  of  the  nature  of 
the  insects  desired  to  destroy  ;  for  instance,  insects  which  eat  their  food 
can  be  poisoned  by  mineral  applications  to  the  foliage,  but  insects  which 
feed  upon  the  juice  of  plants  obtained  by  puncturing  the  skin  cannot  be 
poisoned  by  outward  applications.  The  latter  can  only  be  destroyed  by 
an  application  of  something  which  will  clog  up  their  breathing  pores. 

255.  Q.  What  fungi  give  the  most  trouble  to  the  farmer  and  gardener  ? 
A.  Those  occurring  on  the  potato,  onion,  turnip,  cabbage,  corn,  clover, 

wheat.  A  rotation  of  crops  is  effective  in  overcoming  a  fungus  attack, 
as  one  which  destroys  plants  of  the  cabbage  family  seldom  attacks  plants 
of  a  distinct  genus,  as,  for  instance,  the  onion  or  potato. 

256.  Q.  What  are  the  leading  insecticides  ? 

A.  Compounds  of  arsenic,  as  Paris  green  and  London  purple  ;  oils  and 
soaps,  tobacco  dust,  sulphur,  red  pepper. 

257.  Q.  Is  lime  a  good  fertilizer? 

A.  Not  of  very  much  direct  value,  but  of  great  importance  in  render- 
ing available  plant  foods  already  in  the  soil.  Lime  also  preserves  the  par- 
ticles of  soil  in  a  separate  coagulated  condition,  making  heavy  soils  friable 
and  pervious  to  water.  It  also  promotes  the  formation  of  nitrates  in  the 
soil. 

258.  Q.  Is  common  salt  valuable  as  a  manure? 

A.  No,  not  primarily  ;  but  it  may  on  some  soils  have  a  good  effect  in 
helping  to  set  free  more  important  constituents.  It  is  also  useful  for 
destroying  insects  or  grubs. 

259.  Q.  What  is  this  fungi  about  which  so  much  is  now  said  by  the 
scientific  papers  ? 

A.  It  is  generally  a  parasitic  growth,  popularly  termed  mildew,  mold, 
smut,  blight  or  rust.  Some  of  these  growths  can  be  prevented,  others  pal- 
liated and  sometimes  cured.     As  a  rule,  the  smallest  portions  are  self- 


QUERIES   AND  ANSWERS.  47 

productive  if  not  destroyed,  for  instance,  portions  of  the  potato  fungus, 
too  small  to  be  seen  through  a  microscope,  so  small  that  figures  cannot 
express  their  minuteness,  are  so  potent  with  life  that  every  atom  will  grow 
under  favorable  conditions  ;  and  the  spores  or  reproductive  parts  of  the 
putrefactive  fungus  of  the  lettuce  plant  are  so  small  as  to  take  1000  to 
equal  the  size  of  the  foot  of  a  house  fly. 

260.  Q.  Is  a  collard  a  cabbage,  and  what  is  its  history  ?  CoUard. 
A.  Certainly  it  is  one  of  the  cabbage  family,  just  as  is  the  cauliflower 

or  Brussels  sprouts.  It  has  been  cultivated  in  the  cotton  States  for  a  cen- 
tury. It  may  have  been  derived  from  a  good  heading  cabbage,  or  it  may, 
as  is  most  probable,  have  been  one  of  the  Cow  cabbages,  common  in  parts 
of  France — possibly  brought  over  by  early  French  settlers. 

261.  Q.  From  whence  came  most  of  the  cultivated  species  of  plants?      Origin  of 
A.  From  Europe  and  Western  Asia.    The  United  States  has  furnished  i'i»'»*s. 

very  few.  Maize  or  Indian  corn,  the  Jerusalem  artichoke,  and  the 
gourds  being  the  only  important  ones. 

263.  Q.  I  notice  the  main  stems  of  my  lima  bean  vines  are  all  twisted.  Lima  Beans. 
Is  that  a  healthy  condition  ? 

A.  It  is  perfectly  natural,  as  all  twining  plants  have  their  main  stems 
twisted  upon  the  axis  of  the  stem  and  in  the  same  direction  as  they  turn 
around  supports.  The  extent  of  such  stem  twisting  is  increased  or 
diminished  according  as  the  supporting  stock  or  pole  is  rough  or  smooth. 
The  rougher  it  is  the  more  the  new  stem  twists.  Ordinarily,  there  is 
one  twist  of  the  stem  for  each  spiral  turn  around  a  support,  but  some- 
times much  more. 

263.  Q.  Can  I  make  good  hay  out  of  oats  cut  when  in  green  condition  ?  Oats  Hay. 
A.  Excellent,  if  dried  properly  and  got  under  cover  without  rain.    It 

should  be  cut  before  showing  the  seed,  otherwise  the  growtli  becomes  so 
bulky,  that  cut  and  laying  upon  the  ground,  it  cannot  be  expected  to  dry, 
except  under  such  dry  and  hot  conditions  as  almost  impossible  to  antici- 
pate. 

264.  Q.  I  am  offered  at  a  Roanoke  river  fishery  100,000  herring.     Are  Fish  Manure. 
they  of  value? 

A.  Very  fertilizing,  but  very  temporary  in  effect.  Only  good  for  one 
year.  On  our  Jersey  farm  we  have  used  250,000  herring  a  year,  and  on 
our  Virginia  farm  we  have  used  10,000,000  menhaden  a  year — a  similar 
fish.  Thirty  to  forty  thousand  broadcasted  to  the  acre  and  plowed  under 
four  inches.     Some  farmers  put  two  fish  to  a  hill  of  corn. 

265.  Q.  What  is  the  best  grass  for  planting  on  sand  hills  to  prevent  sand  Grass. 
blowing? 

A.  Arundo  Arenaria,  a  Dutch  grass,  planted  extensively  on  the  sand 
dunes  of  Holland. 

266.  Q.  My  beet  field  is  very  spotty,  that  is,  uneven  in  the  stand  ;  the  VitaUty. 
appearance  indicating  that  there  was  a  want  of  vitality  in  the  seed,  that  is, 

the  germination  was  very  poor  ? 
A.  If  the  seed  sown  upon  your  field  failed  in  all  parts  of  it  to  germi- 


48 


QUERIES   AND  ANSWERS. 


Germination. 


Melon 
Mildew. 


Potatoes 
Growing. 


Weeds- 


Twining  of 
Beans. 


Toads. 


Climbing 
Plants. 


Cause  of 
Climbing. 


Spring 
Wlieat. 


nate,  then  the  seed  might  have  been  deficient  in  vitality.  But,  as  you 
say  it  is  spotty,  it  indicates  a  cause  not  attributable  to  the  seed,  but  possi- 
bly to  poor  tillage,  poor  sowing,  unfavorable  conditions  of  rain  fall,  heat 
or  cold,  or  possibly  to  insects  over  or  under  ground.  If  one  foot  of  row 
was  good,  so  should  have  been  a  thousand  feet,  for  all  the  good  seed  could 
not  have  got  into  one  place. 

267.  Q.  Is  mildew  common  to  muskmelons  ?    Mine  are  covered  with  it. 
A.  Yes.     Something  like  grape  mildew.     It  can  be  held  in  check  by 

spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture. 

268.  Q.  My  potatoes  stored  in  cellar  have  many  of  them  developed  new 
young  potatoes  of  an  inch  in  size.     "What  is  the  cause  of  this? 

A.  Probably  heat  and  moisture.  It  is  an  old  practice  in  England  to 
force  such  an  abnormal  growth.  In  under-glass  experiments  with  pota- 
toes it  is  quite  common  for  potato  eyes  to  at  once  produce  small  but  per- 
fect tubers. 

266.  Q.  How  many  varieties  of  weeds  are  there  to  annoy  the  farmer? 

A.  The  New  Jersey  State  Agricultural  College  exhibited  at  the  Chicago 
Fair  751  species,  and  that  did  not  comprise  one-half  of  what  exist  in  the 
United  States. 

270.  Q.  Why  do  beans  and  other  climbing  plants  twist  contrary  to 
the  course  of  the  sun  ? 

A.  You  are  mistaken,  as  all  da  not  twist  the  same.  Among  those 
twisting  against  the  sun  are  Garden  Pole  beans,  morning  glory,  jas- 
minum,  wistaria,  clematis.  Among  those  twisting  with  the  sun  are  the 
hop  vine,  honeysuckle,  and  many  others,  and  some  climbers  go  in  both 
directions,  as  the  nasturtium. 

271.  Q.  My  garden  is  infested  by  toads.  Do  you  advise  me  to  kill 
them? 

A.  No  I  They  don't  harm  you  or  any  of  your  vegetables  or  flowers,  but, 
to  the  contrary,  eat  thousands  of  insects  which  might  be  very  destructive. 
In  France,  gardeners  pay  twenty-five  cents  apiece  for  them  as  insect  ex- 
terminators. 

272.  Q.  How  many  classes  of  climbing  plants  are  there  ? 

A.  Four  classes  :  1.  Those  which  twine  spirally  round  a  support,  as  a 
Lima  bean.  2.  Those  which  possess  irritable  organs,  which,  when 
they  touch  any  object,  clasp  it,  as  a  clematis.  3.  Those  which  climb  up 
by  means  of  hooks,  as  cucumbers.  4.  Those  which  climb  by  rootlets,  as 
the  ivy. 

273.  Q.  "What  causes  the  Lima  bean,  for  instance,  to  climb  a  pole? 

A.  The  nerve  force  seems  to  be  centred  in  the  last  formed  internode — 
the  previously  formed  one  losing  its  disposition  to  travel  with  or  against 
the  sun.     "What  causes  the  movement  it  is  impossible  to  say. 

274.  Q.  Can  I  grow  in  my  section  of  Georgia  a  crop  of  Minnesota 
Spring  wheat? 

A.  No  ;  not  as  a  Spring-sown  crop,  but  it  might  do  well  as  an  Autumn 
crop  same  as  Winter  wheat.    Many  crops  of  an  annual  habit  can  be 


QUERIES  AND   ANSWERS.  49 

turned  to  a  biennial  habit — for  instance,  as  a  Winter  oat  treated  just  like 
wheat. 

275.  Q.  What  is  the  nature  of  the  dark  rusty  spots  which  are  thickly  melon  Fungi. 
appearing  on  my  watermelons,  both  foliage  and  fruit? 

A,  It  is  probably  a  fungus  similar  with  that  which  spots  bean 
pods,  and  if  so,  is  quite  contagious.  Young  plants  can  be  sprayed  with 
Bordeaux  mixture,  but  it  is  difficult  to  arrest  it  even  then,  as  the  liquid 
cannot  be  thoroughly  applied  to  the  under  sides  of  the  foliage.  On  a 
strongly  developed  crop  nothing  can  be  done,  as  it  is  impossible  to  spray 
the  under  parts  of  such  a  mass  of  foliage  laying  almost  on  the  ground. 

276.  Q.  I  want  to  try  a  good  native  Southern  grass.     What  do  you  Texas 
recommend  ?  Blue  Grass. 

A.  An  American  perennial  grass  not  generally  known  but  of  admirable 
character  for  Southern  sections,  is  the  Texas  Blue  grass  {Poa  araclmifera), 
discovered  on  the  prairies  of  that  State  in  1853.  It  blossoms  there  about 
the  last  of  March  and  ripens  its  seed  about  the  middle  of  April.  Its  habit 
in  Southern  States  is  much  stronger  than  Kentucky  Blue  grass.  In 
Texas,  under  the  severest  droughts,  it  sometimes  lags  a  little,  but  after 
Autumn  rains  quickly  springs  into  most  vigorous  growth  and  continues 
to  grow  all  Winter.  It  makes  a  strong  top  growth  for  hay  and  a  matted 
sod  standing  continued  pasturing.  It  roots  deeply  and  spreads  rapidly 
by  buds  from  long,  strong,  underground  stems,  which  by  their  vigor  re- 
sist the  encroachment  of  Bermuda  grass.  Once  established  it  will  con- 
tinue to  stand  for  a  lifetime.  It  is  best  propagated .  by  cuttings  of  the 
roots,  20,000  set  to  the  acre,  or  say  one  to  each  two  square  feet.  Roots 
cost  about  $1.00  per  1000,  seed  about  $3.00  per  pound,  six  pounds  being 
sown  to  the  acre. 

277.  Q.  What  is  Bermuda  grass?  Bermuda 
A.  Botanically  it  is  known  as  Cynodon  dactylon  and  is  a  creeping  per-  Grass. 

€nnial,  bearing  long,  leafless  flower  stalks,  abundant  but  small  foliage, 
and  producing  a  mat  of  under-ground  stems  and  superficial  runners.  It 
is  not  a  native  of  Bermuda,  but  of  Southern  Europe.  It  is  difficult  to 
grow  it  from  seed.  Consequently  best  propagated  by  roots — every  root- 
cutting  of  an  inch  will  produce  a  plant.  In  the  Southern  States  on  good 
land  it  is  one  of  the  best  hay  grasses.  It  is  very  difficult  to  eradicate  and 
often  becomes  a  great  nuisance. 

278.  Q.  What  is  Johnson  grass  ?  Johnson 
A.  It  is  known  as  Sorghum  holepense,  a  native  of  Africa.     Its  chief  Grass. 

value  is  in  regions  where  other  grasses  fail,  but  it  must  be  cut  young  and 
often  to  be  of  value.  It  is  difficult  to  eradicate,  close  pasturing  being  a 
means  of  killing  it  out.  It  should  only  be  planted  in  waste  places  or 
where  wanted  permanently. 

279.  Q.  What  is  Crab  grass  ?  ^^^^  ^^^^^^ 
A.  Botanically  Panicum  sanguinale,  a  native  of  Europe,  but  now  com- 
mon in  all  the  Southern  States.     It  produces  long,  under-ground,  hori- 
zontal roots,  often  five  and  six  feet  long,  rooting  and  branching  at  every 


50 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS. 


Herbs. 


Sports. 


joint.     The  flower  stalks  rise  to  a  height  of  three  feet.     It  is  a  grass  to  be 
dreaded  as  very  difficult  of  eradication.     It  flourishes  under  hot   sun 
and  often  on  poor  soils,  gives  fair  pasturage  when  other  sorts  of  grass  are 
dried  up. 
Guinea  Grass.     280.  Q.  What  is  Guinea  grass  ? 

A.  Botanically  it  is  called  Fanicnm  maximum,  and  is  a  native  of  Africa 
and  cultivated  extensively  in  the  West  Indies.  Very  susceptible  to  frost, 
and  only  ripens  seed  in  the  tropics.  It  is  a  large  hay  producer,  reaching 
a  height  of  six  to  seven  feet.     The  seed  resembles  millet. 

281.  Q.  My  herbs  this  year  don't  seem  to  possess  the  usual  aroma — 
why  is  it  ? 

A.  The  aroma  is  strongest  in  hot,  dry  Summers — when  they  grow  vig- 
orously under  effects  of  abundant  rains  they  possess  little  aroma. 

282.  Q,  Why  are  not  more  of  our  ornamental  plants  and  fruits  grown 
from  seed  ? 

A.  Because  ofttimes  they  produce  very  little  seed  or  none  at  all,  but 
more  especially  because  they  are  bud  propagations,  not  the  results  of  evo- 
lution or  watchful  and  slow  breeding.  They  are  generally  sports  without 
heredity.  In  some  of  these  cases,  where  the  subject  of  heredity  has  been 
closely  followed  up  for  years,  the  seed  produces  liije  parent — for  instance, 
among  fruits  many  forms  of  Russian  apples,  and  some  peaches,  grapes, 
plums  and  quinces. 

283.  Q.  How  can  I  make  my  pole  beans  run  more  freely  ? 
A.  Use  nitrogen  as  a  manure — apply  it  in  the  form  of  dried  meat,  blood, 

fish  or  guano. 

284.  Q.  How  can  I  keep  my  beans  and  peas  more  dwarf? 
A.  Omit  nitrogenous  manures  and  fertilize  with  potash. 

285.  Q.  How  many  grasses  are  there  ? 
A.  Over  3000  plants  of  the  grass  family  are  known  and  described,  the 

greater  part  of  no  value.  The  list  of  grass  seeds  offered  for  sale  in  vari- 
ous countries  and  recommended  for  forage  numbers  about  200  sorts. 

296.  Q.  My  cucumber  vines  set  very  few  fruit  compared  with  the  num- 
ber of  blossoms.     How  is  this  ? 

A.  In  cucumbers  the  sexes  occur  in  distinct  flowers  and  it  is  only  the 
female  flowers  which  develop  fruit.  In  cucumbers,  blossoms  occur  at 
every  joint,  and  these  are  only  three  to  four  inches  apart,  often  three 
blossoms  at  a  joint,  and  quite  100  to  200  blossoms  to  a  single  vine,  and 
presuming  that  one-tliird  were  female  a  cultivator  might  look  for  an  enor- 
mous production,  but  very  few  of  the  female  flowers  become  pollenized 
and  fruitful. 

287.  Q.  Can  I  take  up  some  of  my  tomato  plants  growing  in  the  field 
and  keep  them  over  the  Winter  for  setting  out  next  Spring? 

A.  You  might  succeed,  but  the  chances  are  against  you,  as  the  plants 
are  in  unsuitable  condition  for  removal.  Tomato  plants,  however,  have 
been  known  to  live  for  years  in  a  greenhouse,  and  in  the  West  Indies 


Nitrogen. 


Potash. 


Grasses. 


Cacumber 
Blossoms. 


Tomato. 


QUERIES  AND   ANSWERS.  51 

they  flourish  out  of  doors  like  grape  vines.  Many  annual  plants  become 
biennial  in  the  tropics,  for  example,  the  pepper  and  egg  plant. 

288.  Q.  What  is  the  relative  proportion  of  male  and  female  blossoms  Squash, 
on  the  bush  squash  ? 

A.  About  five  males  to  one  female.  The  flowers  of  the  male  are  larger 
and  borne  on  long  fool  stalks  and  after  fully  distending  fall  ofl",  leaving 
the  fool  stalks  behind. 

289.  Q.  I  fear  I  have  given  too  big  a  dose  of  fertilizer  to  my  pea  crop,  over- 

as  the  foliage  is  turning  yellow.     What  do  you  advise  me  to  do  to  rectify  manuring, 
my  mistake  ? 

A.  Constant  cultivation  is  the  only  ameliorative  course  you  can  adopt — 
its  object  being  to  keep  the  soil  friable  so  that  not  only  rain  but  dew,  fog 
and  atmospheric  moisture  can  more  fully  enter  the  soil  to  solve  the  fertil- 
izer, and  the  more  it  is  diluted  the  less  burning  its  results.  Commercial 
fertilizers  seldom  burn  in  a  rainy  season,  but  always  are  likely  to  do  so  in 
a  dry  one. 

290.  Q.  My  tomato  plants  are  wilting  and  curling  and  turning  brown.  Tomato 
Am  I  going  to  lose  my  crop  ?  Diseases. 

A.  Your  plants  are  evidently  sufiering  from  a  fungus  growth — a  micro- 
scopic vegetation  which  is  eating  up  the  fleshy  matter  of  the  leaves 
and  arresting  all  development.  Spraying  with  fungicides  is  effective 
•when  you  can  reach  the  under  side  of  the  leaves,  but  otherwise  it  is  only 
half  done. 

291.  Q.  I  find  that  seeds  bearing  the  same  name,  that  is,  sold  under  Names 
the  same  label,  differ  very  widely.     Why  are  not  particular  seeds  the  °^  Seed. 
same  the  world  over  ?    Why  don't  one  seed  merchant  sell  the  same  stock 

as  another? 

A.  They  differ  because  some  are  grown  in  Germany,  some  in  France, 
some  in  England  or  Scotland,  or  if  American,  some  are  produced  in  the 
Eastern,  others  in  the  Central,  and  others  in  the  Western  or  Pacific 
States.  All  these  localities  possess  different  soils  and  climates,  and  conse- 
quently there  is  naturally  developed  a  variation  in  size,  color,  flower  and 
desirability,  and  yet  they  all  are  issued  under  a  given  name — for  instance, 
the  seed  of  Evergreen  corn  grown  in  Pennsylvania  or  New  England  will 
produce  a  plant  of  distinct  characteristics  from  plants  grown  from  Illinois 
stock,  Kansas  or  Michigan  stock,  and  yet  it  is  all  sold  as  Evergreen. 

292.  Q.  What  shall  I  do  to  rid  my  garden  of  earth  worms  ?  Earth 
A.  The  common  earth  worm  does  no  harm,  in  fact  is  rather  an  advan-  Worms. 

tage,  as  it  bores  air  passages  throughout  the  soil.  It  can  be  destroyed  by 
the  application  of  lime. 

293.  Q.  Why  are  round-podded  beans  preferred  to  flat  pods  ?  Roimd-pod 
A.  Round  pods  are  generally  solid  or  meaty  and  free  or  comparatively  Beans. 

free  from  string,  but  flat  pods  are  often  more  or  less  hollow  or  windy, 
generally  stringy  and  nearly  always  thin,  and  when  examined  closely 
possess  sides  more  or  less  like  muslin. 


52 


QUERIES  AND  ANSWERS. 


BeanKust.  294.  Q.  The  pods  at  one  end  of  my  bean  patch  are  spotted  with  red 
rust ;  the  greater  part  of  the  patch  is  free  from  rust.  How  do  you  explain 
this? 

A.  Possibly  the  end  where  the  rust  appears  is  lower,  and  conse- 
quently damper,  or,  perhaps,  it  is  in  the  shade  of  trees  or  other  obstruc- 
tion to  free  circulation  of  air.     The  rust  is  a  fungus. 

Potato  im-         295.  Q.  What  is  the  extent  of  annual  importations  of  potatoes? 

portations.  A.  During  the  year,  ending  June,  1894,  the  importations  were  as 
follows  : 


Belgium 

Germany , , 

Netherlands 

United  Kingdom — England 

Scotland , 

Ireland 

Bermuda 

Dominion  of    Canada — Nova    Scotia,   New    Bruns. 

wick,  etc 

Quebec,  Ontario,  etc 

Mexico 

Cuba 

China 

All  other  countries 


Bushels.       Values, 


51,720 
41,662 
28,347 
295,435 
,671,239 
28,540 
64,993 

596,799 

188,020 

1,235 

28,084 
1,187 
5,317 


3,002,578 


5  16.844 

15,354 

15,607 

117,288 

737,531 

10,872 

109,122 

169,086 

63.353 

1,454 

17,351 

252 

3,080 


$1,277,194 


Conch  Grass. 


Japan 
Clover, 


Alfalfa. 


Peach 
Yellows. 


296.  Q.  What  is  conch  grass  or  quack  ? 

A.  Agropyrum  repens,  a  nuisance  found  in  nearly  all  the  Northern 
States,  a  first-cousin  to  the  crab  grass  of  the  South.  It  forms  a  dense 
sod,  its  far-reaching  horizontal  roots  having  short  joints,  which  throw 
out  root  fibres  and  leaf  stalks.  Its  foliage  and  roots  are  succulent  and 
nutritious,  but  it  is  a  pest  of  the  first  order. 

297.  Q.  What  is  Japan  clover  ? 

A.  Lespedeza  striata,  introduced  about  1850,  from  China.  It  is  a 
quick-growing  annual,  killed  by  frost.  Does  best  on  clay  lands,  especi- 
ally on  bottoms,  where  it  is  a  good  hay  producer.     It  seeds  itself. 

298.  Q.  What  is  Alfalfa  ? 

A.  It  is  Medicago  sativa  botanically.  Also  known  as  Lucerne  and  used 
for  cuttting  almost  entirely,  as  it  is  not  adapted  for  pasturage,  cattle  eat- 
ing it  off  the  crown.  According  to  soil  and  location  it  continues  in  vigor 
from  three  to  ten  years.     It  is  adapted  to  dry  climates.     Overflow  kills  it. 

299.  Q.  Can  I  cure  my  peach  trees,  which  appear  to  be  afiected  with, 
the  yellows,  by  the  application  of  wood  ashes  ? 

A.  No  ;  manuring  the  soil  will  not  stop  the  spread  of  the  disease . 


QUERIES  AND  ANSWERS.  53 

300.  Q.  Where  can  I  purchase  spraying  apparatus  and  get  formulas  for  Spraying 

insecticide  ?  Apparatus. 

A.  From  the  publishers  of  this  pamphlet. 

301.  Q.  In  your  Catalogue,  you  sometimes  refer  to  tillage,  then  to  cul-xuiagc. 
tivation.     What  is  the  difference  ? 

A.  To  plow,  to  dig,  to  harrow,  before  the  crop  is  planted,  is  to  till. 
The  earth  is  tilled,  but  the  crop  is  cultivated. 

302.  Q.  What  leaf  fibre  plants  can  be  grown  successfully  in  the  Gulf  Fibre  Plants. 
States  ? 

A.  The  Agave  rigida  or  true  sisal  heinp,  the  Agave  decipiens  or  false 
sisal  hemp,  the  Agave  Americana  or  century  plant,  Ananassa  sativa  or 
pineapple,  Sansevieria  or  bowstring  hemp,  Phormium  or  New  Zealand 
flax.  Yucca  filamentosa  or  bear  grass. 

303.  Q.  How  many  experimental  stations  are  there  in  the  United  States  ?  Experimen- 
A.  About  fifty.     Some  States  having  two,  others  more.  **^  stations. 

304.  Q.  On  what  crops  is  nitrate  of  soda  especially  eflFective.  Nitrate  of 
A.  As  an  auxiliary  to  stable  manure  it  is  efficient  on  all  crops,  but  it  Soda. 

is  especially  profitable  on  the  crops  most  expensive  to  grow,  on  account 
of  excessive  labor,  as  by  its  use  there  is  more  certainly  assured  a  larger 
return. 

305.  Q.  A  seed-grower  writes  of  male  cabbage  plants  failing  to  pro-  Sexes  in 
duce  heads.     Is  this  so?  Cabbage. 

A.  It  is  a  ridiculous  statement,  as  there  is  no  such  thing  as  a  male  cab- 
bage plant,  the  two  sexes  occurring  in  the  same  flower.  Cabbage  plants 
which  fail  to  head,  if  the  conditions  of  season,  climate  and  soil  are  favor- 
able, might  properly  be  termed  abortive. 

306.  Q.  I  have  in  my  watermelon  field  a  twenty-pound  melon,  one  halfParti-coiored 
deep  green,  the  other  half  lemon  yellow — the  dividing  line  running  from  Watermelon. 
blossom  end  to  stem  end.     How  is  this  ? 

A.  It  may  be  the  efiect  of  a  pumpkin  hybridization  the  previous  year 
of  a  double  or  twin  watermelon  blossom,  or  it  may  be  only  a  common 
freak  or  sport  of  nature — a  familiar  example  being  found  in  some  gourds, 
which  are  always  half  green  and  half  yellow. 

307.  Q.  If  the  flower  of  a  watermelon  is  pollenized  from  the  flower  of  Hybrid 
a  pumpkin,  and  the  cross  be  efi"ective,  is  the  fruit  resulting  an  obvious  Melons. 
hybrid  ? 

A.  No  ;  it  is  little  afi"ected  if  any — the  hybridization  being  confined  to 
the  seed,  which  planted  the  next  year  shows  the  mixture. 

308.  Q.  Why  is  it  that  every  year  about  half  of  my  spinach  plants  die  sexin 
without  producing  seed  ?  Spinach. 

A.  The  half  which  die  are  the  male  plants,  which  dry  up  after  perfect- 
ing their  bloom.  The  female  plants  only  produce  seed,  and  these  live  for 
a  month  after  the  male  plants  have  disappeared. 

309.  Q.  Not  one-half  of  the  blossoms  on  my  cucumber  vines  ever  set  sex  in 

fruit.     Why  is  this  ?  Cucumber. 

A.  The  sexes  occur  in  distinct  flowers — the  male  never  produces  fruit. 


54 


QUERIES  AND   ANSvVERS. 


Pumpkin  or 
Squash. 

Tea  Plant. 


First 

Horticultural 

Society. 


First 

Agricultural 
Society. 

Tomatoes. 


Salt. 


Cutting 
Lettuce. 


Coreless 
Carrot. 


Color  in 
Vegetables. 


Dates  for 
Seeding. 


and  only  those  female  flowers  which  are  fertilized  or  pollenized  by  con- 
tact with  male  flowers  or  through  the  agency  of  the  wind  or  of  insects. 

310.  Q.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  pumpliin  and  a  squash? 

A.  A  pumpkin  never  develops  a  rind  hard  as  wood,  while  a  squash  does. 

311.  Q.  Can  the  tea  plant  be  grown  successfully  in  the  United  States? 
A.  Yes,  the  plant  can  be  grown  very  successfully  in  some  of  the  Cotton 

States,  but  in  this  country  labor  is  very  costly  as  compared  with  the 
cheap  labor  of  China.  In  1790,  David  Landreth  had  growing  near  Phila- 
delphia a  hedge  of  tea  plants  which  stood  for  years. 

312.  Q.  At  what  date  was  the  first  Horticultural  Society  established  in 
America  ? 

A.  In  1828,  the  Philadelphia  Horticultural  Society,  of  which  David 
Landreth  was  Secretary. 

313.  Q.  At  what  date  was  the  first  Agricultural  Society  established  in 
America? 

A.  In  1785,  the  Philadelphia  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Agriculture. 

314.  Q.  Are  all  tomatoes  derived  from  the  same  species  ? 

A.  No  ;  the  best  of  the  large  sorts  in  cultivation  have  been  derived 
from  the  Esculentum,  a  sort  divided  into  four  or  five  cells  by  intervening 
partitions.  The  pear-shaped  varieties  are  derived  from  the  Pyriforme,  a 
sort  of  two  cells.  The  grape  or  current  sorts  from  the  Cerasiforme,  of 
two  cells. 

315.  Q.  Will  salt  applied  to  my  fields  drive  away  corn  grubs  ? 

A.  Yes ;  very  frequently  most  efficient  in  arresting  ravages  of  chinch 
bugs  on  wheat,  cut  worms  on  corn,  but  it  should  be  applied  before  the 
crop  is  planted — six  or  seven  bushels  to  the  acre. 

316.  Q.  You  describe  a  lettuce  as  a  cutting  sort.  What  do  you  imply 
by  that  expression  ? 

A.  A  variety  producing  a  mass  of  loose  leaves — not  a  heading  sort — 
generally  an  early  variety. 

317.  Q.  What  do  you  mean  by  coreless  as  applied  to  a  carrot? 

A.  The  usual  types  of  carrots  contain  a  woody  centre,  from  off  which 
the  soft  outer  shell  can  be  removed.  In  the  case  of  the  coreless  varieties 
this  character  is  nearly  eliminated — the  whole  mass  being  soft. 

318.  Q.  Are  not  Yellow  Belgian  carrots  more  nutritious  for  cattle  feed- 
ing than  White  Belgian  ? 

A.  As  a  rule  vegetables  of  deep  colors  are  considered  richer  than  those 
without  color,  but  it  is  possibly  a  fiction.  The  Sugar  beet  is  white,  the 
Bassano  beet  is  white,  both  of  exceeding  sweetness. 

319.  Q.  Is  there  any  general  guide  to  indicate  the  proper  periods  for 
sowing  seeds,  a  guide  good  for  all  sections  ? 

A.  It  would  be  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  indicate  a  guide  for  sow- 
ing in  the  Southern  States,  but  in  the  North  the  blooming  of  trees  aflfords 
a  good  indication.  The  periods  for  the  first  Spring  sowing  might  be 
named  as  follows  : 


QUERIES  AND   ANSWERS.  55 

1st  Period The  blooming  of  the  peach Peas.  Periods  for 

2d  Period The  blooming  of  the  cherry Peas,  SowingSeeds. 

Spinach, 

Lettuce, 

Corn  salad, 

Onion  sets, 

Asparagus  roots. 

3d  Period The  bloommg  of  the  pear All  the   above, 

■with    addition    of 

Radish, 

Celery, 

Carrot, 

Beet, 

Mustard, 

Onion  seed, 

Parsley, 

Tomato  seed, 

Cabbage, 

Parsnip. 

4th  Period The  blooming  of  the  apple All  the  preceding, 

with    addition    of 

Salsify, 

Beans, 

Corn, 

Cucumber, 

Melon, 

Pumpkin, 

Okra. 

320.  Q.  What  soils  are  best  adapted  to  tobacco  culture?  Tobacco 

A.  Like  all  other  cultivated  plants,  tobacco  has  its  various  forms,  quali-  Soils. 
ties  and  assortments,  and  the  progressive  tobacco  grower  plants  only 
those  the  most  profitable  to  him,  as  respects  soil  and  his  market,  both  of 
■which  must  be  studied.  Red  clay  subsoils,  ■with  rich  top  soils,  generally 
produce  the  best  dark  rich  export  tobacco.  Soils  composed  of  sand  or 
gravel,  ■with  subsoil  of  light  brown  or  red  clay,  develop  the  best  stem- 
ming tobacco  and  fillers.  Flat  lowlands  of  alluvial  soil  give  the  best 
cigar  types.  Limestone  soils,  dark  and  rich,  are  the  only  soils  adapted  to 
White  Burleigh,  which,  when  well  grown,  is  very  choice.  Slaty  soils 
produce  the  best  quality  of  the  yellow  wrapping  sorts.  The  list  of  so- 
called  varieties  of  tobacco  runs  up  into  hundreds,  many  the  result  only 
of  a  difference  in  soil.  The  publishers  have  selected  a  limited  number  of 
varieties  of  such  as  will  meet  any  requirement  under  the  classification  of 
adaptability.  The  publishers  solicit  orders  for  seed,  believing  their  stocks 
to  be  of  excellence,  and  knowing  a  change  of  seed,  when  good  stock  can 
be  obtained,  is  generally  a  great  advantage  to  the  planter. 


56 


QUERIES  AND   ANSWERS. 


321.  Q.  "Why  did  my  second  sowing  of  turnip  seed  utterly  fail  to  come 
up  when  my  first  sowing  from  the  same  bag  did  perfectly  well  1 

A.  Possibly  the  second  sowing  was  eaten  off  by  the  turnip  fly  when  it 
was  only  one-twentieth  (^^)  of  an  inch  out  of  the  ground,  and  was  killed 
before  you  were  aware  it  had  sprouted. 

322.  Q.  Are  there  two  kinds  of  top  onions? 

A.  Yes ;  those  with  single  eyes  producing  one  large  onion  and  those 
with  several  eyes  splitting  up  into  a  number  of  small  bulbs.  Conse- 
quently inferior  to  the  larger  single  type  variety. 

323.  Q.  Have  pole  beans  any  advantage  over  bush  beans? 

A.  It  is  more  expensive  to  prepare  to  grow  pole  beans,  as  the  poles  are 
costly  and  the  vines  need  to  be  tied  up  three  or  four  times  ;  but  the  pro- 
duct is  larger,  consequently  the  general  results  are  in  favor  of  the  pole 
varieties,  especially  as  the  pole  sorts,  with  two  or  three  exceptions,  con- 
tinue to  bear  till  killed  by  frost,  while  the  bush  beans  produce  their 
entire  crop  in  a  very  limited  period. 

324.  Q.  Have  vine  crops  different  degrees  of  power  of  resistance  to  the 
burning  effect  of  Paris  green  ? 

A.  Yes  ;  cantaloupes  the  least — next  watermelons,  followed  by  pump- 
kins— the  hardiest  being  squash. 

325.  Q.  What  is  best  remedy  for  bugs  on  melons  ? 

A.  This  is  a  difficult  question.  Lots  of  preparations  will  kill  bugs  dead 
as  Cfesar,  but  if  put  on  strong  enough  to  finish  the  insects  they  either  kill 
the  plants  or  burn  them.    It  is  difficult  to  strike  the  happy  medium. 

Paris  green  is  as  good  as  any  bug  poison,  but  it  should  be  mixed  with 
something  as  a  dilutant,  as  land  plaster — say  one  part  of  Paris  green  to 
100  of  plaster  or  flour — anything  stronger  will  burn  the  leaves  of  the 
plants.  Applications  may  be  made  at  intervals  of  four  days.  For  the 
melon  louse  use  kerosene  emulsion  or  whale  oil  soap. 

326.  Q.  How  can  I  test  the  vitality  of  seeds  ? 

A.  Many  ways  ;  but  none  altogether  satisfactory,  for  results  to-day  may 
be  positively  changed  next  week  or  next  month,  so  much  depending  upon 
the  peculiar  conditions  of  moisture  and  heat,  or  the  fluctuations  of  the 
same.  Again,  seeds  have  their  periods  of  sprouting — sometimes  those 
which  fail  in  January  will  do  well  in  April.  Tests  of  vitality  can  be 
made  by  counting  out  100  seeds  just  as  they  run,  good  and  bad,  and  test- 
ing them  to  develop  the  percentage  of  seeds  which  will  sprout.  This 
can  be  done  between  solidified  bats  of  cotton  kept  damp  in  a  saucer 
partly  filled  with  water — or  on  seed-testing  trays  manufactured  for  the 
purpose,  or  in  pots  filled  with  earth  and  kept  in  proper  temperature  or  on 
the  earth  benches  of  a  greenhouse.  Vitality  tests  out  of  doors  are  very 
unsatisfactory,  as  dashing  rains  are  apt  to  defeat  all  calculations. 

327.  Q.  For  small  vegetable  gardens  do  you  advise  the  use  of  s>,able 
manure  or  commercial  fertilizer? 

A.  Stable  manure  every  time,  as  it  comprehends  all  the  necessary  fer- 


QUERIES  AND   ANSWERS.  57 

tilizing  ingredients  and  loosens  and  aerates  the  soil.  Soils  too  frequently 
treated  with  commercial  fertilizer  become  compacted. 

328.  Q.  Should  I  plant  my  radish  seed  during  the  increase  or  decline  of  Moon 

the  moon  ?  influence. 

A.  The  moon  has  no  influence  upon  vegetation.  That  is  an  exploded 
idea  too  dead  to  be  resurrected. 

329.  Q.  Why  is  there  more  fungus  growth  some  seasons  than  others?     Fungi. 
A.  Nearly  all  fungus  growths  can,  in  a  general  way,  be  likened  to  a 

mushroom  growth,  and  the  mushroom,  it  is  well  known,  flourishes  under 
conditions  of  moisture.  So,  likewise,  fungus  developments  are  most 
common  in  wet  seasons. 

330.  Q.  Why  are  insects  more  destructive  to  vegetables  some  seasons  insects, 
than  others  ? 

A.  Insects  destructive  to  vegetables  always  appear  in  greater  numbers 
after  a  mild  Winter.  The  larvte  of  such  insects  lay  dormant  in  the  soil 
over  Winter,  and  very  hard  frost  kills  millions.  While  under  the  condi- 
tions of  a  mild  Winter  all  live  and  show  themselves  in  Spring  or  Summer. 

331.  Q.  Is  a  wet  or  dry  season  the  most  profitable  to  the  practical  Most 
market  gardener  ?  Profltabie 

A.  A  dry  one,  as  a  wet  season  smiles  alike  on  both  good  and  poormana-  Seasons. 
gers,  while  in  a  dry  season,  when  so  many  crops  fail,  the  good  manager, 
having  a  variety  of  crops  put  in  at  diS"erent  periods  and  possessing  practi- 
cal experience  in  meeting  difficulties  as  they  arise,  succeeds  in  obtaining 
good  crops  from  some  portions  of  his  land  and  high  prices  for  his  products. 

332.  Q.  Is  the  perennial  Lima  bean  a  desirable  sort  for  garden  cultiva- Perennial 
tion  ?  Lima. 

A.  It  does  not  possess  any  particular  merit  beyond  novelty.  It  devel- 
ops a  small  bushy  plant  of  slender  and  procumbent  character  ;  pods  four 
to  five  inches  long  and  depressed  between  the  seeds,  which,  when 
dry,  are  oblong  and  thick  and  of  good  quality.  It  is  late  and  a  shy 
bearer.  It  has  the  peculiar  character  of  keeping  the  cotyledons  under  the 
earth.     Other  Limas  elevate  them. 

333.  Q.  How  many  forms  of  Lima  beans  are  there  in  general  cultivation  ?  Lima  Beans. 
A.  Two  very  distinct  classes,    the  pole  and  the   bush.     The  pole  or 

climbing  class  can  be  divided  into  the  Large  Lima,  the  Challenger  Lima, 
King  of  Garden  Lima,  and  the  Carolina,  both  white,  yellow,  spotted 
and  black.  The  bush  or  dwarf  class  can  be  divided  into  the  Dwarf 
Carolina  in  three  colors,  white,  yellow,  spotted  ;  the  Potato  Lima,  or 
Dreer's  Dwarf,  or  Kumerle,  the  Burpee  Lima,  and  the  Perennial  Lima. 

334.  Q.  Can  the  Large  Lima  bean  be  kept  alive  so  that  the  same  roots  perennial 
will  produce  a  crop  the  second  Summer  ?  Beans. 

A.  It  is  doubtful  if  it  could  be  done,  except  in  Southern  Florida.  In 
California,  the  Perennial  Lima  and  the  White  Dutch  Runner  beans,  which 
both  have  fleshy  roots,  often  live  over  Winter,  and  send  up  from  near  the 
surface  a  second  growth  of  vines,  producing  a  second  crop  of  pods. 

335.  Q.  Why  is  a  snap  short  or  stringless  bean  called  a  string  bean?     ^  string  Beans. 
A.  Simply  through  force  of  habit  or  custom.    The  bean  of  years  ago, 


58 


QUERIES  AND   ANSWERS. 


Butter  Beans. 


Germination. 


Bermuda 
Grass. 


Cow  Peas. 


Cotton 
Fertilizers. 


Club  Root. 


Green 
IVIanuring. 


Grass  Soils. 


all  having  been  stringy,  which  undesirable  quality  has,  by  intense  selec- 
tion, been  eliminated,  the  best  "string  beans"  now  not  possessing  any 
strings,  but  snapping  off  short  like  sticks  of  glass. 

336.  Q.  What  are  "butter"  beans  ? 

A.  At  the  present  day  the  term  butter  beans  is  applied  to  yellow  wax- 
podded  sorts,  as  they  somewhat  resemble  butter  in  color  ;  but  years  ago 
the  term  was  only  applied  to  the  Lima  bean,  as  it  was  usually  served  with 
a  butter  sauce. 

337.  Q.  Do  seeds  diflFer  much  in  sprouting  qualities  ? 

A.  Yes  ;  very  much.  There  is  a  great  variation  in  germinative  power 
under  diverse  conditions  of  soil  as  respect  heat  and  cold,  excessive  damp- 
ness or  dryness.  Most  seeds  make  but  one  effort  to  start  or  germinate, 
that  is,  they  start,  and,  if  unchecked,  continue  to  grow  freely,  or,  per- 
haps, drag  along  if  not  arrested  entirely  ;  but  some  others,  wheat,  for  ex- 
ample, can  be  stopped  entirely  by  cold  or  heat,  excessive  wet  or  drought, 
and,  upon  the  return  of  favorable  conditions,  start  again  and  again,  four 
or  five  times  repeated. 

338.  Q.  What  is  the  best  grass  I  can  use  in  Florida  to  stop  my  land 
from  washing  ? 

A.  Bermuda  grass,  planted  by  cutting  small  pieces  of  sod  and  inserting  it. 

339.  Q.  How  do  you  recommend  Cow  peas  to  be  used  ? 

A.  1.  The  vines  can  be  plowed  under  when  green.  2.  The  vines  can 
be  cut  and  dried  for  cattle  food.  3.  The  vines  can  be  allowed  to  dry  and 
produce  a  crop  of  seed.  4.  The  vines  can  be  allowed  to  dry  and  fall  ou 
the  surface  and  lay  all  Winter. 

340.  Q.  What  is  the  best  manure  for  cotton  ? 

A.  Cotton  requires  phosphoric  acid,  nitrogen  and  potash  in  the  order 
named.  Or  for  a  crop  of  say  300  pounds  of  lint  per  acre  say  50  pounds 
phosphoric  acid,  20  pounds  nitrogen,  and  15  pounds  potash.  For  the 
phosphoric  acid,  use  commercial  super-phosphates  possessing  a  large 
quantity  of  soluble  phosphoric  acid  ;  for  nitrogen,  use  dried  blood,  dried 
fish,  ground  cotton  seed  ;  for  potash,  use  muriate  of  potash. 

341.  Q.  My  cabbage  has  developed  club  root.  Instruct  me  how  to  stop 
it  from  destroying  the  entire  field  ? 

A.  It  cannot  be  stopped,  as  any  application  now  would  be  too  late. 
After  the  crop  is  off,  apply  80  bushels  of  slacked  lime  per  acre  and  8 
bushels  of  salt. 

342.  Q.  What  plants  can  I  best  use  for  green  manuring? 

A.  Cow  pea,  alfalfa,  scarlet  clover,  melilotus,  serradilla,  lupine,  vetch, 
rye,  maize,  sorghum,  red  clover. 

343.  Q.  Name  the  situations  where  various  grasses  do  best  ? 

A.  In  special  locations  as  on  lowlands  or  mountain  sides,  or  on  special 
soils  as  sands,  gravels,  clays,  loams,  some  sorts  may,  with  advantage,  be 
omitted  and  others  added.  Timothy,  for  example,  a  short-lived  hay 
grass,  does  best  on  well-drained  land  and  in  northern  latitudes.  Red 
Top,  a  longer-lived  sort,  does  better  on  moist  land,  even  sustaining  long- 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS.  59 

continued  overflow.  Orchard  grass,  on  the  other  hand,  a  good,  all- 
around  sort,  will  grow  on  dry,  sandy  loam  ;  fairly  well  on  poor  clay  and 
better  on  rich  bottoms,  so  it  be  not  overflowed,  and  it  even  endures  the 
shade  of  trees. 

344.  Q.  On  what  soil  does  Blue  grass  do  best  ?  Blue  Grass. 
A.  Blue  grass  doing  best  on  limestone  soils  is  not  a  good  hay  producer, 

as  it  is  a  light  cropper,  difiicult  to  cut  and  harder  to  cure,  but  it  is  emi- 
nently a  pasturage  and  lawn  grass.  It  is  an  easy  grower,  flourishing  for 
a  limited  time  on  gravels,  bottoms  and  clays,  while  on  limestone  soils 
grazing  fields  have  been  known  to  remain  in  perfection  for  sixty  years. 
It  will  not  stand  severe  droughts,  but  resists  any  amount  of  frost,  while 
continued  pasturage  only  makes  it  better. 

345.  Q.  What  are  the  best  grasses  for  pasturage  ?  Pasturage 
A.  Upon  the  length  of  time  which  it  is  contemplated  to  allow  the  pas-    ''**^*** 

turage  to  stand  depends,  to  a  large  extent,  the  varieties  of  grass  seeds  to 
mix,  as  for  example,  Timothy,  Italian  Rye  grass,  Cocksfoot,  White  and 
Alsike  clover,  are  all  very  quick  to  develop  and  suitable  for  a  two  or 
three  years'  shift,  while  for  a  longer  term  should  be  added  Blue  grass. 
Red  Top,  Foxtail,  Tall  Fescue,  Perennial  Rye,  Lucerne  and  Red  clover. 

346.  Q.  How  many  grass  seeds  are  in  a  pound  ?  Seeds  to  the 
A.  One  who  sets  himself  to  estimate  the  number  of  seeds  in  a  pound    *"^  ' 

will  soon  come  to  a  realization  of  the  necessity  for  a  perfect  seed  bed,  that 
the  small  seeds  be  not  lost  in  crevices  or  under  clods,  for  he  will  find  the 
seeds  to  number  in  a  pound  of  Tall  Fescue  250,000,  Red  clover  280,000, 
Orchard  grass  600,000,  Timothy  1,250,000,  Blue  grass  2,375,000,  Rough 
Meadow  3,000,000  and  Red  Top  8,000,000.  Can  it  be  expected  that  over 
10  per  cent,  of  the  seeds  ever  make  a  plant,  considering  the  rough  tillage 
and  careless  sowing  of  the  ordinary  farmer  ? 

347.  Q.  Why  do  you  advise  the  sowing  of  so  much  grass  seed  to  the  Grass 

acre  ?  Seeding. 

A.  Thin  seeding  of  grass  is  a  most  serious  mistake,  as  a  poor  stand  of 
grass  only  leaves  room  for  weeds  to  occupy  the  space.  Consequently  we 
advise  a  very  liberal  application  of  seed,  for  under  the  best  conditions,  as 
respects  preparation  of  land,  distribution  of  seed  and  covering,  a  large 
portion  of  the  seed  will  get  too  deeply  covered  over  to  vegetate. 

348.  Q.  How  deep  should  grass  seed  be  covered  ?  Depth  of 
A.  Not  more  than  one  farmer  in  a  hundred  by  his  field  practice  shows  Cohering. 

any  indication  that  he  realizes  the  necessity  of  shallow  covering  of  grass 
seeds,  for  they  generally  put  on  a  harrow  and  cover  to  a  depth  of  one  to 
two  and  a  half  inches,  delicate  seeds  not  one-thirtieth  of  an  inch  in  diame- 
ter. Certainly  the  greater  part  never  shows  a  green  blade,  for  farmers 
seldom  stop  to  consider  the  delicate  nature  of  the  seeds  they  commit  to 
rough,  cloddy  earth. 

349.  Q.  Instruct  me  what  mixture  of  grasses  will  do  best  in  my  section  ? 
A.  AH  prescriptions  for  grass  seed  mixtures  are  little  more  than  gener- 
alities, for  no  one  can  compile  a  table  or  seriesof  tables  showing  thevarie- 


60 


QUERIES   AND  ANSWERS. 


Grass  Seed 
Prescription  s 


Heredity. 


Variability. 


Market 
Gardening. 


Cucumber 
Salting. 


ties  positively  adapted  to  different  localities,  for  soils  even  on  adjoining 
fields  frequently  vary  so  much  as  to  require  an  entire  change  in  the  varie- 
ties and  proportions.  How  much  more  difficult  to  prescribe  for  unknown 
soils,  some  perhaps  a  thousand  miles  away.  The  geological  constitution, 
rainfall,  drainage,  altitude  and  objects  sought,  whether  for  hay  or  graz- 
ing, all  need  to  be  studied.  The  best  guide  is  the  experience  of  others  in 
one's  location,  but  even  that  is  often  misleading,  for  we  have  grown  grand 
crops  of  Timothy  and  Clover  in  a  section  of  a  Southern  State,  where  the 
farmers  seldom  saved  any  hay,  trusting  almost  entirely  to  corn  fodder — 
of  course  there  were  no  barnyards  worthy  of  the  name  in  that  locality. 

350.  Q.  Is  there  much  dependence  to  be  placed  in  heredity  ? 

A.  While  heredity  is  a  well-marked  principle  in  vegetable  life,  there  is 
a  constant  tendency  to  depart  from  established  forms,  sometimes  for  the 
better,  oftener  for  the  worse,  for  reversion  is  generally  downward  in  the 
scale  of  excellence.  The  reversion  may  be  in  the  form  of  a  wild  sport,  or 
a  distinct  reproduction  from  a  late  or  a  very  remote  ancestor.  Were  it 
not  for  heredity  the  seed  growers'  labors  would  be  in  vain,  but  fortunately 
the  man  who  finds  a  good  thing  in  the  greenhouse,  flower  garden,  or  veg- 
etable garden,  or  in  the  field,  can  seize  upon  it,  and  by  the  aid  of  heredity 
fix,  after  a  time,  its  valuable  qualities  for  the  benefit  of  all.  But  it  may 
be  well  to  say  he  meets  with  many  instances  of  curious  reversion  to  orig- 
inal types. 

351.  Q.  Can  the  Market  Gardener  do  anything  to  prevent  variation 
from  true  types  ? 

A.  No.  Every  experienced  seed  grower  knows  that  the  purest  crops 
will  sometimes  develop  the  wildest  sports  ;  for  instance,  a  crop  of  cabbage 
of  apparently  absolute  purity  may  produce  a  few  plants  like  collards,  the 
result  alone  of  reversion.  The  seed  grower  is  powerless  to  prevent  this 
natural  physiological  freak,  and  the  gardener  who  knows  anything  of 
seed  production  and  vegetable  variability  deals  more  rationally  with  the 
seedsman  than  he  who  knows  nothing  of  such  matters,  but  thinks  nature 
should  produce  plants  all  as  much  alike  as  nickels  from  the  mint. 

352.  Q.  What  is  the  value  of  the  Market  Gardening  industry  in  the 
United  States  ? 

A.  Upward  of  $100,000,000  is  invested  in  this  industry,  the  annual  pro- 
ducts reaching  a  value  of  over  $75,000,000,  the  product  of  over  half  a 
million  acres  of  laud.  The  annual  expenditures  for  fertilizers  being 
$10,000,000,  the  number  of  hands  employed  being  250,000.  The  number 
of  horses  and  mules  employed  being  75,800.  The  value  of  the  imple- 
ments used  being  $8,971,000.  In  tlie  Philadelphia  district,  which  includes 
Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey  and  New  York,  there  are  employed  70,000 
men  at  an  average  cost  for  daily  wages  of  $1.19  ;  the  annual  production 
being  of  the  value  of  $21,000,000. 

353.  Q.  What  is  the  extent  of  cucumber  pickling? 

A.  While  gardeners  may  have  some  idea  of  the  extent  of  cucumber 
culture  for  sale  as  a  vegetable,  little  is  known  about  the  development  of 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS.  61 

its  culture  for  salted  pickles.  Our  neighbors  over  in  New  Jersey  were  for 
years  the  largest  producers  of  cucumbers  for  salting,  growing  annually 
200,000  bushels,  but  now,  by  reason  of  Western  competition,  not  a  quarter 
part  of  that  quantity  is  grown.  Long  Island,  in  the  East,  is  the  largest 
producing  section,  the  New  York  crops  being  estimated  at  200,000,000 
pickles.  These  pickles  bring  the  farmer  from  60  cents  to  $1.25  per  thou- 
sand. The  Ohio  Valley  is  the  next  important  pickle  section.  After  that, 
the  country  near  the  south  end  of  Lake  Michigan.  These  various  crops 
of  cucumber  sections  amount  to  about  1,500,000  bushels  of  300  to  the 
bushel,  consequently  450,000,000  cucumbers.  Large  quantities  are  ex- 
ported to  Europe. 

354.  Q.  How  many  cucumber  pickles  can  be  had  from  an  acre  ?  Cucumber 
A.  A  good  crop  of  cucumbers  when  gathered  of  pickling  size  produces  ^»ckiestothe 

from  100  to  175  bushels  to  the  acre.  A  bushel  contains  about  300  pickles. 
Some  cultivators  have  claimed  to  produce  over  100,000  pickles  to  the  acre. 
When  pulling  pickles  the  work  should  be  done  cautiously,  that  the 
vines  be  disturbed  as  little  as  possible,  for  if  they  be  uninjured  they  will 
produce  many  successive  pickings.  The  pickles  should  be  slipped  from 
the  vine  by  the  thumb  and  finger  without  raising  or  disturbing  the  vine. 

355.  Q.  Can  beet  root  sugar  be  made  in  the  United  States  ?  Beet  Sugar. 

A.  During  the  past  fifty  years  a  hundred  efforts  have  been  made  to  pro- 
duce beet  sugar  in  the  United  States,  but  nothing  really  practical,  cer- 
tainly nothing  profitable,  was  accomplished  till  after  1880.  During  the 
Summer  of  1893  seven  beet  sugar  factories  were  in  operation  in  the  United 

States,  one  in  Virginia,  two  in  Nebraska,  one  in  Utah  and  three  in  Call- 
fornia.  The  money  Invested  in  these  several  factories  is  estimated  at 
$2,500,000.  In  the  Autumn  of  1893  and  Winter  of  1894  the  output  of 
sugar  from  these  seven  factories  was  45,000,000  pounds. 

356.  Q.  Is  the  canning  of  peas  increasing  ?  Pea  Canning. 
A.  The  quantity  of  pea  seed  annually  sown  has  reached  vast  dimen- 
sions, quite  250,000  bushels  being  annually  planted.     In  the  Chesapeake 

Bay  district  alone  it  is  estimated  that  40,000  to  50,000  bushels  are  sown 
each  year  on  from  20,000  to  25,000  acres  from  which  product  75  per  cent. 
is  put  into  cans.  The  quantity  of  product  of  peas  greatly  varies  under 
conditions,  sometimes  100  bushels  of  green  pods  to  the  acre  being  har- 
vested, at  other  times  only  thirty  or  forty.  The  canning  of  peas  has  de- 
veloped on  a  par  with  that  of  tomatoes,  the  number  of  tin  cans  put  up  in 
the  United  States  being  estimated  at  18.000,000  to  20,000,000.  The  Balti- 
more city  canners  use  annually  about  400,000  bushels  of  shelled  peas, 
which  they  put  into  7,000,000  cans. 

357.  Q.  Is  there  any  machinery  made  for  shelling  green  peas?  Shelling  Peas 
A.  Formerly  all  peas  for  canning  had  to  be  picked  from  the  vines  by 

hand  and  shelled  by  hand.  Some  years  ago  machine  shellers  or  pea 
hullers  were  invented  for  opening  the  green  pods,  100  bushels  an  hour  or 
1000  bushels  a  day,  and  grading  the  soft  peas  into  three  classes  according 
to  size.     These  machines  do  the  work  better  than  when  done  by  hand. 


62 


QUERIES  AND  ANSWERS. 


Tomato 
Introduction 


Seasons  for 
Vegetables. 


and  doing  the  work  so  quickly  the  peas  are  put  through  the  process  of 
canning  before  they  take  on  a  dry  or  soiled  appearance,  which  is  often 
the  case  when  done  by  the  slow  system  of  hand  shelling.  But  now  the 
large  growers  never  pull  a  green  pod,  but  by  machinery  pull  up  the  vines 
from  the  entire  field  when  they  are  bearing  the  greatest  number  of  devel- 
oped pods,  and  then  passing  the  vines  through  the  machine  break  off  the 
pods,  open  them,  and  grade  the  peas. 

358.  Q.  In  what  year  were  tomatoes  generally  introduced  as  a  vege- 
table ? 

A.  In  this  country  tomatoes  came  into  general  use  about  1845,  and  have 
grown  so  rapidly  in  favor  that  no  fruit  or  vegetable  which  can  be  named 
has  to  such  a  rate  increased  in  cultivation,  the  fruit,  either  natural  or 
canned,  being  used  in  all  seasons — indeed,  quite  as  much  in  Winter  as  in 
Summer. 

Tomatoes  were  first  packed  in  tin  and  glass  by  Mr.  Harrison  W.  Crosby, 
at  Lafayette  College,  Pa.,  in  the  year  1848.  He  sold  his  product  at  fifty 
cents  a  can  ;  now  the  price  is  seven  cents — the  result  of  the  adoption  of 
steam  machinery  and  intense  application  to  the  cheapening  of  costs. 

The  canning  of  tomatoes  has  now  reached  enormous  proportions.  In 
1894,  138,000,000  tins  were  put  up,  and  the  vegetable,  as  it  is  classed,  is  in 
as  common  use  during  Winter  as  in  Midsummer. 

359.  Q.  What  are  the  seasons  for  various  vegetables  ? 

A.  Formerly  esculent  vegetables  could  be  divided  into  classes,  as  re- 
spects seasons  of  use,  and  a  period  named  covering  the  time  of  sale  of 
each  class — as,  for  example,  peas  were  only  offered  during  May,  June  and 
July,  and  so  with  cucumbers,  tomatoes,  egg  plants  and  beans  ;  they  all 
had  their  seasons,  and,  when  they  were  past,  only  those  people  who  had 
greenhouses  could  expect  more  until  the  return  of  the  corresponding  sea- 
son of  the  following  year.  But  now  that  is  a  condition  of  the  past,  for 
Georgia  and  Florida,  with  their  evergreen  productiveness,  have  been  able 
to  revolutionize  the  old  conditions  by  sending  to  the  Northern  cities,  even 
when  snowclad  and  icebound,  the  fruits  of  balmy  Summer. 

360.  Q.  Where  do  the  earliest  new  potatoes  come  from? 

A.  Large  quantities  of  new  potatoes  reach  the  markets  of  New  York 
and  Philadelphia  from  Bermuda,  Charleston,  Savannah,  Florida,  and  still 
later,  but  before  Northern  crops  mature,  from  Virginia  and  Maryland  ; 
and  there  is  room  for  more,  at  paying  prices,  and  they  who  present  them 
early,  of  good  sorts  and  in  good  condition,  need  not  apprehend  a  want  of 
customers. 
SweetPotato.     361.  Q.  What  is  the  relation  of  the  white  potato  to  the  sweet  potato  ? 

A.  The  white  potato  has  become  a  product  of  the  world,  cultivated 
equally  successfully  from  Chili  to  Alaska,  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
to  Iceland.  The  sweet  potato,  on  the  other  hand,  belongs  to  a  distinct 
botanical  order  ;  in  fact,  if  one  is  a  potato  the  other  is  not.  The  tubers 
of  the  white  potato  are  underground  branches,  while  the  tubers  of  the 
sweet  potato  are  enlarged  roots.     The  sweet  potato  is  very  sugary  as  well 


Potatoes. 


QUERIES   AND  ANSWERS.  63 

as  farinaceous.  It  appears  to  have  been  found  both  in  tropical  America 
and  part  of  Asia.  The  early  Spanish  voyagers  to  America  took  it  back 
with  them  to  Spain,  where  it  was  cultivated  as  early  as  1526,  or  forty  or 
fifty  years  earlier  than  the  white  potato. 

362.  Q.  How  many  marketable  ears  of  green  corn  should  we  get  to  the  Com. 
acre,  and  how  long  does  it  require  from  planting  to  marketing  ? 

A.  Of  the  medium  and  large  varieties  of  sugar  corn,  75  to  80  bushels, 
or  8000  to  9000  marketable  ears  can  be  raised  to  the  acre.  Corn  when 
planted  in  Midsummer  does  not  mature  as  quickly  as  when  Spring  planted, 
as  the  climatic  conditions  are  not  so  favorable,  not  of  such  a  forcing  na- 
ture as  the  early  Summer  influences,  hence  from  10  to  15  days  must  be 
added  to  the  calculation  of  the  time  required  to  develop  a  crop,  for  in- 
stance, the  Evergreen  Sugar  corn,  which,  when  planted,  say  May  15,  will 
mature  under  usual  conditions  in  85  days,  should  be  given  90  to  100  days 
as  an  Autumn  crop. 

363.  Q.  What  is  the  extent  of  the  corn  canning  interest  ?  Corn 

A.  The  canning  of  corn  for  "Winter  use  has  become  a  most  important  Canning- 
industry,  employing  thousands  of  hands  and  a  large  capital  invested  in 
buildings  and  machinery.  The  number  of  tins  put  up  during  the  Sum- 
mer of  1893  was  93,000,000,  and  it  is  expected  that  during  the  Summer  of 
1895  the  number  of  cans  may  reach  to  125,000,000.  New  York  State  cans 
the  largest  quantity,  with  Maine  not  far  behind  and  Maryland  as  a  third. 
The  operations  in  the  State  of  Maryland  of  growing  the  best  vegetable 
sweet  corn  for  canning  have  reached  a  most  notable  development.  One 
Maryland  farmer  and  canner  alone  purchasing  for  several  years  the  seed 
corn  to  plant  1100  acres  of  his  own  land  and  3400  acres  of  contracted  crop 
grown  by  neighbors  ;  every  grain  from  which  4500  acres  he  put  up  in  tin 
cans, 

364.  Q.  What  are  the  manufacturing  uses  of  corn  ?  Uses  of 
A.  A  large  quantity  of  corn  is  used  in  making  starch.     This  article  is  Com. 

more  generally  used  in  the  arts  than  is  realized,  for  it  enters  in  the  filling 
of  many  woven  fabrics,  in  the  manufacture  of  candy,  some  candy  being 
over  half  starch,  in  baking  powders,  paper  and  a  thousand  things  as  an 
adulterant,  250,000,000  pounds  of  starch  being  annually  consumed  in  vari- 
ous ways,  and  all  of  which,  in  this  country,  is  made  principally  from  pota- 
toes, corn  and  some  from  wheat.  About  10,000,000  bushels  of  corn  are 
annually  used  in  the  manufacture  of  starch.  A  comparatively  new  use 
for  corn  is  that  for  brewing  or  beer  making,  quite  30,000,000  bushels 
being  used  annually.  Corn  used  for  brewing  has  first  to  be  deprived  of 
its  cuticle  and  its  germ  to  get  rid  of  the  native  oil,  for  if  over  2  per 
cent,  of  oil  remains  the  corn  is  unfit  for  beer.  The  degerminating  ma- 
chines are  very  ingenious. 

365.  Q.  What  is  the  geographical  centre  of  the  corn-growing  interest  ?  ^'"^^ 

A.  In  1829  the  centre  of  production  was  this  side  of  the  Alleghenies.  ^^****'**'"*'"* 
In  1839  over  the  mountain.   In  1849  in  Ohio.    In  1889  in  Illinois.    In  1894 
in  Iowa.    None  of  these  districts  which  once  led  have  fallen  behind  in 


6i 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS. 


production  ;  only  been  eclipsed  by  the  phenomenal  production  and  ex- 
tended areas  of  the  newer  States  ;  for  instance,  Tennessee,  which  fifty 
years  ago  ranked  first,  now  ranks  only  ninth,  though  its  production  of 
corn  is  double  what  it  was  then. 

366.  Q.  How  much  corn  is  grown  in  Europe? 

A.  The  growth  of  corn  in  Europe  is  steadily  increasing,  now  reaching 
the  quantity  of  300,000,000  bushels,  or  say  one-seventh  of  that  of  the 
United  States.  Tlie  European  countries  producing  the  largest  quantity 
are  Austria  Hungary,  with  100,000,000  bushels,  followed  by  France  with 
80,000,000  bushels.  In  the  Mediterranean  countries  there  are  annually 
sown  many  million  acres  in  forage  corn.  The  grain  there  does  not  reach 
perfection  as  in  this  country,  for  it  is  always  imperfect  in  form  and  gen- 
erally stained  and  moldy,  for  the  climatic  conditions  of  the  nights  there 
are  not  at  all  favorable  to  the  ripening  of  the  grain.  The  undeveloped 
and  moldy  grain  when  consumed  for  a  length  of  time  develops  a  disease, 
to  treat  which  special  hospitals  have  been  established. 

367.  Q.  When  was  the  first  vegetable  analysis  made  ? 

A.  The  first  accurate  analysis  of  a  vegetable  was  not  made  till  the  year 
1810,  and  so  late  as  1838  the  Gottingen  Academy  offered  a  prize  for  a  sat- 
isfactory solution  of  the  question  whether  the  ingredients  of  the  ashes  are 
essential  to  vegetable  growth.  The  last  forty  years  have  placed  agricul- 
ture upon  a  scientific  foundation,  and  the  strides  of  development  have 
been  wonderful.  The  investigations  of  all  scientific  men,  in  these  partic- 
ular pursuits,  have  served  to  dispel  ancient  theories  and  develop  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  systems  of  germination,  subsistence  and  growth. 

368.  Q.  What  are  the  essentials  to  plant  subsistence? 

A.  It  is,  fortunately,  the  case  that  nearly  every  soil  holds  more  or  less  of 
the  inorganic  parts  essential  to  vegetable  growth.  They  may  be  briefly 
enumerated  as  sulphates,  phosphates,  nitrates,  chlorides  and  carbonates 
of  potash,  lime,  magnesia,  iron.  Where  an  ingredient  is  deficient  in 
quantity  it  can  be  readily  aided  by  specific  application.  The  time  has 
come  when  every  farmer  must  possess  some  knowledge  of  natural  his- 
tory ;  he  must  prepare  himself,  if  he  expects  to  follow  his  pursuit  success- 
fully, as  much  as  does  the  mechanic  or  the  professional  man. 

369.  Q.  After  a  market  gardener  purchases  or  rents  his  land,  how  much 
ready  cash  must  he  have  per  acre  to  properly  work  the  land  ? 

A.  From  Florida  the  reports  of  the  necessary  capital  per  acre  in  land 
or  its  rental  (not  of  labor),  fertilizers,  tools,  implements,  seed  and  all  the 
appliances,  average  ninety-five  dollars  ;  from  Texas,  forty-five  ;  from 
Illinois,  seventy  dollars  ;  from  the  Norfolk  district  of  Virginia  the  reports 
vary  from  seventy-five  to  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  dollars,  according 
to  location,  and  from  Long  Island,  N.  Y.,  the  average  of  estimates  at 
the  east  end  are  seventy-five  and  at  the  west  end  one  hundred  and  fifty 
dollars. 

Market  gardeners  living  five  miles  out  of  Philadelphia,  on  tracts  of 
twenty  and  thirty  acres,  devoting  all  their  land  and  energies  to  growing 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS.  65 

vegetables,  sometimes  paying  forty  dollars  per  acre  for  rent,  estimate  that 
the  necessary  capital  averages  from  two  hundred  to  three  hundred  dollars 
per  acre,  according  to  the  amount  of  truck  grown  under  glass.  These 
same  men  calculate  the  profits  to  be  from  one  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  to 
two  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  per  acre. 

370.  Q.  How  long  has  the  cabbage  been  in  cultivation?  Cabbage. 
A.  The  cabbage  plant  in  a  cultivated  form  was  known  two  thousand 

years  ago,  and  at  the  time  of  Pliny  six  varieties  were  in  cultivation.  The 
forms  of  the  Brassica  family  are  varied,  some  varieties  being  cultivated  for 
their  leaves,  as  the  cabbage,  where  the  terminal  leaf-bud  alone  is  active  ; 
others  for  their  inflorescence,  as  the  cauliflower,  where  the  terminal  leaf- 
bud  is  checked ;  others  for  oil,  as  rape,  where  the  terminal  and  lateral 
leaf-buds  are  active  ;  others  for  their  enlarged  roots,  as  the  turnip,  where 
the  leaf-buds  are  the  same  as  in  rape. 

371.  Q.  What  is  the  most  profitable  branch  of  market  gardening  ?  Market 

A.  In  the  North  the  most  profitable  vegetable  growing  nowadays  is  ^^ardenmg, 
done  under  glass,  both  in  hotbeds,  hothouses  and  coldhouses — profitable 
because  the  producers  are  limited  in  number,  and  as  the  products  are  sent 
to  market  at  seasons  when  the  markets  are  not  glutted — out-of-season 
vegetables  they  may  be  styled.  The  most  successful  of  such  men  have 
standing  contracts  with  the  best  hotels,  clubs  and  restaurants. 

372.  Q.  Has  there  been  much  progress  in  methods  of  vegetable  culture  ?  Vegetable 

»       i->  a  Culture. 

A.  Vegetable  culture  at  the  present  day  is  quite  distinct  from  that  of 
the  past,  for  while  gardening  has  been  from  ancient  times  termed  an  art, 
it  may  now,  in  its  advanced  condition,  be  termed  an  art  supported,  ex- 
plained and  dignified  by  nearly  every  science,  all  being  called  upon  to 
account  for  the  natural  phenomena  of  plant  germination,  vegetation  and 
maturity. 
378.  Q.  Are  all  plants  vegetables  in  a  general  sense  ?  Definition  of 

A.  The  term  Vegetable  is  very  indefinite ;  for  instance,  the  oak  tree  ^^^  "  ** 
equally  with  the  tomato  is  classed  as  a  vegetable,  the  cucumber  equally 
with  the  orchid,  the  seaweed  equally  with  the  mushroom  ;  consequently, 
in  a  general  sense,  trees  and  seaweed  are  vegetables  as  well  as  cabbages 
or  watermelons,  those  which  are  edible  being  termed  esculent  vegetables. 
There  is  a  more  critical  division  of  those  which  are  used  as  food  and 
which  may  be  said  to  pass  through  the  kitchen  for  some  preparatory 
preparation,  culinary  vegetables  being  the  term  used  to  denote  this  class. 
This  classification  omits  from  the  class  of  culinary  vegetables  those  pro- 
ducts (as  apples,  grapes,  pears)  which  can  be  used  without  cooking  or 
without  preparation  of  any  sort,  but  this  in  fact  is  not  yet  correct,  for  the 
line  of  separation  is  best  determined  by  physical  characteristics. 
374.  Q.  What  is  a  culinary  vegetable  ?  Cuiina 

A.  The  private  gardener,  the  market  gardener,  the  commission  mer-  Vegetables. 
chant,  all  class  as  vegetables  the  potato  and  the  tomato,  the  cabbage  and 
the  pea,  the  beet  and  the  egg  plant,  the  celery  and  the  corn,  the  lettuce 
and  the  bean.     This  for  all  practical  purposes  is  right,  but  physiologically 


66  QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS. 

is  all  wrong.  Why?  Because  the  egg  plant,  the  tomato,  the  bean,  the 
corn,  are  fruits.  How  many  persons  have  ever  taken  the  trouble  to  think 
over  the  difference  between  a  culinary  vegetable  and  a  culinary  fruit? 
What  is  that  difference  ?  It  is  a  difference  of  origin  of  development.  A 
culinary  vegetable  is  properly  the  result  of  abnormal  development  of 
vegetable  tissue,  as  in  the  enlarged  leaves  of  the  cabbage  or  the  thick 
roots  of  the  beet  or  carrot,  while  a  culinary  fruit,  as  also  all  fruit,  is  a 
growth  following  and  resulting  from  inflorescence,  as  after  the  flower 
comes  upon  thp  same  stem  the  egg  plant,  pepper,  tomato,  cucumber, 
watermelon,  pumpkin.  All  these  are  fruits  just  as  much  as  the  apple, 
pear  or  grape.  Some  people  might  say  fruits  only  grow  on  hard-wooded 
plants,  as  on  trees  and  bushes,  but  not  so,  as  a  pea  is  a  fruit,  an  ear  of  corn 
is  a  fruit.  Nevertheless,  these  distinctions  do  not  make  tliem  any  easier 
or  harder  to  produce,  do  not  make  them  more  or  less  profitable. 

What  is  375.  Q.  What  is  agriculture  ? 

Agricuitare?  A.  Agriculture  refers  to  the  tillage  of  the  earth  over  broad  fields,  as  for 
the  raising  of  cereals,  grass  or  tubers.  Gardening,  on  the  other  hand, 
refers  to  the  culture  of  small  inclosed  areas.  This  application  of  the  lat- 
ter term  was  quite  correct  originally,  but  it  is  now  common  for  mere 
vegetable  gardens  to  equal  the  area  of  ordinary  grain  and  grass  farms, 
requiring  in  their  cultivation  a  degree  of  general  intelligence,  technical 
skill,  and  an  amount  of  activity,  implements  and  labor  exceeding  that 
expended  upon  large  farms. 

■What  is  376.  Q.  What  is  gardening  ? 

Gardening?  j^  Gardening  again  differs  from  farming  in  the  range  of  varieties  culti- 
vated. The  farmer  may  devote  his  acres  to  those  crops  to  which  the  land 
is  adapted,  but  the  gardener  is  expected  to  grow  the  entire  list  of  vegeta- 
bles, without  reference  to  the  composition  of  the  soil.  Such  cultivation, 
to  be  successful,  must  be  to  some  extent  scientific.  The  cultivator  must 
possess  a  knowledge  of  the  facts  and  principles  which  underlie  his  art  or 
he  will  certainly  fail.  Gardening,  whicli  formerly  was  described  as  agri- 
culture upon  circumscribed  areas,  has  ever  shared  with  the  latter  the 
esteem  of  mankind.  Twenty-four  hundred  years  ago  Socrates  said,  "It 
is  the  source  of  health,  strength,  plenty,  riches  and  honest  pleasure  ;" 
and  a  poetic  English  writer  said,  "  It  is  amid  its  scenes  and  pursuits  that 
life  flows  pure,  the  heart  more  calmly  beats." 

Market  377.  Q.  How  does  market  gardening  differ  from  private  family  gar- 

Gardeuing.      dcning  ? 

A.  It  is  done  on  a  larger  scale.  Market  gardening  on  a  large  scale  may 
be  termed  commercial  gardening,  as  the  operator  must,  to  a  certain  extent, 
be  a  merchant,  fully  alive  to  the  import  of  fluctuating  prices  and  quick 
to  change  his  point  of  shipment  or  his  consignee. 

Market  378.  Q.  Is  market  gardening  overdone  ? 

Gardening.  A.  With  tlie  seven  millions  of  people  of  Philadelphia,  New  York,  Bos- 
ton, St.  Louis  and  Chicago,  and  the  many  millions  more  in  other  cities 
and  towns  which  look  to  these  great  distributing  markets  for  supplies, 


QUERIES  AND   ANSWERS.  67 

there  is  at  seasonable  periods  little  fear  of  gorging  the  markets  if  the  fruit 
and  vegetables  be  well  chosen  and  well  packed.  Observe  the  use  of  the 
expression  "seasonable  periods,"  as  of  course  no  Southern  grower  of 
tomatoes,  cucumbers,  egg  plant,  or  other  garden  products  would  ex- 
pect to  find  a  market  for  his  goods  in  Northern  cities  when  those  mar- 
kets were  in  receipt  of  the  same  class  of  garden  truck  from  territory 
adjacent,  the  products  of  which  would  be  fresher  and  cheaper  than  those 
from  distant  points.  The  shipper  of  fruits  and  vegetables  from  the  South, 
attempting  to  cope  with  the  garden  States  of  New  Jersey  and  Delaware, 
when  their  products  are  being  sent  to  market,  would  only  have  his  trouble 
for  his  pay. 

379.  Q.  What  is  the  advantage  of  cropping  cow  peas?  Cow  Peas. 
A.  To  improve  the  fertility  of  the  soil  by  the  concentration  near  the 

surface  of  potash  and  nitrogen,  seized  upon  and  brought  to  the  surface 
by  the  roots  vertically  descending  to  depths  below  and  by  the  accumula- 
tion of  nitrogen  drawn  from  the  air  and  held  by  the  root  galls — a  notable 
peculiarity  of  this  crop.  The  cow  pea,  which  la  properly  a  bean,  will 
grow  upon  the  poorest  soils,  and  if  the  crop  be  repeated  for  two  or  three 
years  will  fit  them  in  an  astonishing  degree  for  ordinary  farm  crops. 

380.  Q.  How  many  families  of  cow  pea  are  there?  Cow  Pea 
A.  There  are  two  marked  divisions  ;  first,  the  Crowder,  in  which  the  Varieties. 

seeds  are  packed  so  closely  in  the  pods  as  to  be  flattened  on  the  sides  ; 
second,  the  Kidney  formed.  These  two  classes  are  divided  into  forty  or 
fifty  sub-varieties  of  various  colors,  habits,  and  periods  of  maturity.  To 
produce  a  dense  mass  of  vine  to  cover  the  ground  and  decay  or  to  be 
plowed  under  green  the  best  are  the  Calico,  Black,  Red  Ripper  and  Clay. 
If  to  produce  a  big  yield  of  dry  seed,  the  best  is  the  Unknown  and  the 
Clay.  To  produce  a  crop  for  ensilage  the  best  are  the  Clay  and  the 
Whip-poor-will.     For  all-around  purposes  the  Clay  is  as  good  as  any. 

381.  Q.  Is  it  advantageous  to  manure  land  intended  for  a  crop  of  cow^j^^pg^g^ 
peas? 

A.  The  primary  object  of  growing  cow  peas  is  to  add  fertility  to  a  poor 
soil.  Now  if  the  soil  is  very  poor  but  a  small  crop  of  cow  peas  can  be 
expected  and  consequently  a  small  return  of  fertilization  to  the  soil.  It 
is  therefore  advantageous  to  force  them  by  manure  if  the  soil  be  exces- 
sively poor.  The  manure  most  elTective  in  the  forcing  of  cow  peas  is 
superphosphate  of  lime. 

382.  Q.  In  what  way  does  clover,  cow  peas,  and  plants  of  the  bean  i.egume 
family  improve  the  fertility  of  soil  ?  FamUy. 

A.  On  the  roots  of  the  legume  family  are  developed  certain  organisms 
which  acquire  and  hold  nitrogen  faster  than  other  portions  of  these 
plants  ;  these  are  root  galls  or  tubercles,  the  product  of  microbes  or  bac- 
teria. These  root  galls  vary  in  number  in  different  locations,  but  on 
plants  of  legume  family  are  always  present  to  a  greater  or  lesser  extent. 
As  they  have  the  faculty  of  absorbing  nitrogen  from  the  air,  those  plants 
which  produce  the  greatest  number  of  these  galls  are  recognized  as  nat- 


68 


QUERIES  AND  ANSWERS. 


Wasbed 
Lands. 


Inoculation 

of 

Soils. 


American. 
Liocust. 


Insects. 


Pea  Bug. 


Squash 
Borer. 


ural,  highly  nitrogenous  fertilizers.  It  is  theorized  that  the  number  of 
these  galls  can  be  increased  by  treating  the  soil  with  microbe  water.  If 
this  be  correct  a  new  system  of  intense  and  cheap  soil  fertilization  will  be 
developed. 

383.  Q.  What  is  the  best  course  in  the  recovery  of  washed  soils  or 
eroded  lands  ? 

A.  The  first  thing  to  do  is  to  incorporate  organic  matter  to  the  fullest 
extent  possible.  A  soil  charged  with  humus  has  the  ability  to  absorb 
water  and  hold  it  till  it  percolates  to  depths  below  instead  of  running 
away.  The  second  thing  to  do  is  to  plow  and  cultivate  the  land  so  as  to 
avert  the  rapid  surface  flow  of  rain  water  ;  this  can  be  done  by  terracing 
and  by  side-hill  ditches  and  contour  cultivation. 

384.  Q.  What  is  meant  by  the  inoculation  of  soils? 

A.  It  is  a  theory  that  a  soil  is  rendered  more  fertile  for  a  specific  crop 
by  transferring  to  it  a  top-dressing  of  soil  from  a  field  on  which  the  pre- 
vious year  had  been  grown  a  crop  of  the  new  crop  contemplated.  For 
instance,  if  it  is  intended  to  put  a  field  down  in  clover,  it  is  theorized  that 
the  plants  will  be  more  vigorous  and  the  crop  altogether  larger  if  the  field 
be  top-dressed  or  manured  with  soil  from  a  field  which  was  in  clover  the 
previous  year. 

385.  Q.  What  kind  of  an  insect  is  the  American  locust  ? 

A.  It  may  be  described  as  a  large  grasshopper,  common  throughout  the 
Southern  States  and  sometimes  occurring  in  New  York  and  New  Jersey. 
It  hibernates  as  an  adult  and  lays  eggs  in  May  and  June,  the  young  in- 
sects appearing  in  July  and  August.  It  manifests  a  decided  preference 
for  corn,  but  feeds  ravenously  on  oats,  clover,  potatoes  and  foliage  of  fruit 
trees.  It  seems  to  prefer  elevated  food,  as  watermelons,  cucumbers  and 
other  low-growing  plants  often  escape. 

386.  Q.  How  can  insect  depredations  best  be  kept  in  check  on  the 
farm  ? 

A.  By  Autumn  plowing,  which  exposes  the  soil  to  the  killing  effects  of 
frost.     By  rotation  of  crops  and  thorough  cultivation. 

387.  Q.  How  does  the  pea  bug  get  into  the  pea  ? 

A.  The  flying  mother  insect  deposits  her  eggs  upon  the  outside  of  the 
pods  when  the  pods  are  less  than  half  grown.  The  eggs,  under  the  heat 
of  sun,  hatch,  and  the  young  grubs  eat  their  way  sometimes  directly  into 
the  young  peas  ;  at  other  times  they  mine  along  the  inside  of  the  pod, 
remaining  there  for  days  before  they  enter  the  pea.  These  weevil  are 
propelled  by  false  or  temporary  legs  which  they  drop  with  their  false  skin 
when  they  enter  the  pea,  not  till  it  is  nearly  fully  formed.  After  that 
they  assume  the  ordinary  form  of  larva  of  the  weevil  and  remain  till 
Autumn,  when  they  eat  their  way  out. 

398.  Q.  My  Boston  Marrow  and  Hubbard  squash  last  August  were 
destroyed  by  the  squash  borer;  what  shall  I  do  this  year  to  protect  my 
vines  ? 

A.  Kill  the  adult  red-legged  insects,  which  can  be  done  about  sunrise 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS.  69 

and  sunset,  as  they  can  then  be  found  sitting  quite  torpidly  on  top  of  the 
leaves. 

389.  Q.  Are  there  plants  which  eat  insects  ?  Carnivorous 
A.  Yes.    Not  exactly  as  animals  eat  their  food,  but  certain  plants  are"^^****** 

possessed  of  an  irritability  which  gives  power  of  seizing  upon  such  insects 
as  come  within  reach  of  the  flowers,  which  possess  digestive  powers 
which  chemically  and  functionally  are  somewhat  parallel  to  the  powers 
possessed  by  animals. 

390.  Q.  Is  there  in  any  of  the  States  a  quarantine  against  insects,  the  insect 
same  as  the  European  nations  raised  against  certain  American  insects,  as  Quarantine. 
the  potato  bug,  for  example  ? 

A.  Only  in  California  ;  but  there  ought  to  be  in  every  State,  for  we  are 
not  only  disseminating  all  the  insects  of  our  American  climates,  but  im- 
porting and  distributing  among  ourselves  all  the  insects  and  fungous  dis- 
eases of  the  world, 

391.  Q.  Do  growing  crops  alone  diminish  the  nitrogen  of  the  soil  to  Nitrogen, 
the  extent  of  their  nitrogenous  composition  ? 

A.  No.  Nitrogen  disappears  more  rapidly  than  the  crops  alone  remove 
it.  It  leaches  away  by  drainage,  and  as  the  humus  of  the  soil  diminishes 
so  does  the  nitrogen.  It  increases  in  a  marked  degree  when  the  land  is 
put  down  in  clover  or  plants  of  that  class.  The  principal  loss  of  nitrates 
takes  place  in  Autumn,  and  this  can  be  partially  provided  against  by  the 
Summer  and  Autumn  cultivation  of  nitrate  crops,  as  clover.  Southern 
cow  peas,  mustard,  rape — green  manures  for  plowing  under  after  frost. 

392.  Q.  What  shall  I  do  to  make  my  truck  farm  pay  a  better  profit?       Trucking 
A.  Stop  the  cultivation  of  crops  not  clearly  profitable.     Cease  making    "^^    *' 

experiments  on  a  large  scale.  Reduce  the  wages  expended.  Use  the  best 
labor-saving  machinery  and  plant  only  the  best  seeds — and  they  are 
Landreths'. 

393.  Q.  Why  do  garden  seeds  kept  throughout  the  Summer  months  in  i-pss  of 
the  cotton  States  so  generally  lose  their  vitality?  **    ^ 

A.  Because  they  are  subjected  to  an  amount  of  moisture  in  the  air 
which  causes  the  germs  to  partly  start  into  growth,  weakening  them  for 
future  effort. 

394.  Q.  Last  year  I  got  from  you  ten  pounds  Boss  watermelon  seed  and  irregular 
planted  about  half  of  it,  the  crop  resulting  being  phenomenally  fine  re-  Oermlnation. 
specting  quantity,  size  and  quality.     This  year  I  planted  the  remaining 

half  on  adjoining  field  and  it  is  just  as  inferior  as  it  was  last  year  superior. 
How  is  this  ? 

A.  It  is  all  due  to  surrounding  circumstances,  as  respects  soil,  rainfall, 
temperature,  time  of  planting,  kind  of  fertilizer  and  the  influence  of  the 
previous  crop.     Every  practical  gardener  has  had  this  same  experience. 

395.  Q.  In  what  way  do  crops  feed  upon  the  organic  compounds  applied  Plant  Food. 
to  or  native  to  the  soil? 

A.  They  do  not  feed  upon  them  as  they  are,  but  only  after  they  have 
been  reduced  to  their  more  simple  component  parts.    These  transforma- 


70 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS. 


Drought. 


Paris  Green. 


Crops  on 
Sand. 


Bean  Rust. 


Cauliflower 
Sou. 


Color  in 
Plants. 


Weevil 
in  Beans. 


Pea  Bug. 


tions  are  largely  effected  by  inferior  organisms  which  inhabit  all  soils. 
There  is  accordingly  much  study  applied  to  soil  microbes,  cryptogamic 
plants,  many  of  which  have  power  to  an  unusual  degree  of  seizing  upon 
and  fixing  the  nitrogen  of  the  air  as  well  as  that  in  the  soil. 

396.  Q.  Why  do  some  crops  resist  drought  better  than  others  ? 

A.  Because  of  difference  in  length  in  the  descending  roots.  Wheat, 
for  instance,  resists  drought  better  than  grass  because  it  roots  deeper.  All 
plants  root  more  deeply  than  generally  believed,  for  they  have  vertically 
descending  filaments  which  escape  the  notice  of  the  ordinary  observer. 

397.  Q.  How  can  I  prevent  Paris  green  from  burning  the  foliage  of 
plants  ? 

A.  A  chemical  change  can  be  brought  about  which  reduces  the  burning 
quality  by  adding  one  pound  of  lime  to  every  twenty  gallons  of  the  Paris 
green  solution. 

398.  Q.  Can  crops  be  grown  on  perfectly  pure  sand  by  the  aid  of  arti- 
ficial manures  ? 

A.  Yes  ;  Prof.  Ville,  of  France,  demonstrated  that  on  washed  sands 
he  could  grow  good  crops  by  adding  to  it  component  parts  of  plant  foods, 
the  product  varying  according  to  the  component  parts  applied,  as  potash, 
lime,  nitrogen,  or  phosphoric  acid.  These  singly,  or  in  twos,  or  in  threes, 
or  altogether  ;  3-inch  culture,  however,  would  not  be  profitable. 

399.  Q.  Can  the  bean  rust  be  prevented  ? 

A.  It  can  be  reduced  by  soaking  the  seed  for  one  hour  before  planting 
in  some  of  the  copper  baths,  as  copper  carbonate  or  copper  sulphate. 

400.  Q.  What  is  the  best  soil  for  cauliflower  ? 

A.  The  soil  is  not  so  important  a  matter  as  the  subsoil  and  the  atmos- 
phere. Cauliflower  to  be  of  first  quality  should  be  grown  quickly,  and 
a  quick  growth  is  advanced  by  a  copious  supply  of  water  which  the  roots 
can  draw  upon  ;  consequently  the  plants  do  best  where  water  occurs  at  a 
short  depth  beneath  the  surface.  As  to  the  location,  the  plant  does  best 
in  a  salt  atmosphere. 

401.  Q.  Is  not  the  variability  in  the  color,  form,  odor  and  secretions  of 
flowers  a  provision  of  Nature  to  please  the  eye  of  man  ? 

A.  It  appears  not  to  be  that  alone,  but  to  be  essential  to  the  plants'  ex- 
istence, as  all  these  qualities  referred  to  aid  in  the  work  of  insect  pollina- 
tion and  result  from  insect  pollination. 

402.  Q.  How  can  I  kill  weevil  in  my  beans? 

A.  If  you  can  put  them  into  a  large  glass  bottle  or  a  tin-lined  chest  or 
in  a  tin-lined  chamber  or  room,  you  can  then  subject  them  to  the  fumes  of 
bisulphide  of  carbon,  deadly  to  animal  life.  One  quart  of  the  liquid 
allowed  to  volatilize,  which  it  does  quickly,  is  enough  to  kill  the  bugs 
in  fifty  bushels  of  seed  exposed  twenty-four  hours  to  its  influence. 

403.  Q.  Will  seed  peas  which  have  been  cut  by  the  pea  bug  germinate 
as  freely  and  produce  as  well  as  peas  which  have  not  been  effected  by  the 
bug? 

A.  Take  one  hundred  peas  and  it  will  be  observed  they  have  not  all 


QUERIES  AND   ANSWERS.  71 

been  entered  exactly  at  the  same  place  ;  in  some  the  germ  has  been  de- 
stroyed— they  certainly  will  not  sprout ;  in  some  the  interior  is  more  eaten 
out  than  in  others — they  afford  less  food  support  to  the  young  plant, 
which  may  never  be  healthy  ;  others  of  the  one  hundred  are  uninjured  as 
a  seed  stock. 

404.  Q.  What  is  the  remedy  for  destroying  insects  in  small  seeds — the  Bisulphide. 
weevil  in  dried  beans  and  the  bugs  in  dried  peas  ? 

A.  Subject  the  seeds  in  a  closed  vessel,  as  a  pot,  chest,  or  tight  room, 
to  the  fumes  of  some  deadly  chemical  preparation,  as  cyanide  of  potassium 
or  carbon  bisulphide.     Don't  inhale  it  yourself. 

405.  Q.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  True  Top  onion  set  and  the  Top  Onion. 
Egyptian  or  Winter  Top  onion  set  ? 

A.  The  True  Top  onion  set  is  the  product  of  the  True  Top  large  onion, 
which  is  planted  out  in  the  Spring  to  produce  sets  on  top  of  the  stalks 
(they  do  not  produce  black  seed)  The  sets  are  planted  to  produce  large 
onions.  The  Egyptian  or  Winter  Top  onion  set  is  nothing  more  nor  less 
than  the  original  True  Top  onion,  which  has  been  allowed  to  remain  in 
the  ground  year  after  year  and  has  degenerated  into  a  half  wild  condition; 
the  sets  will  not  produce  a  large  onion,  but  grow  in  bunches  in  the  form 
of  scullions.  Until  they  were  introduced  as  a  novelty  they  were  regarded 
as  utterly  worthless.  The  two  may  be  detected  by  cutting  the  set  of  each 
in  half— the  True  type  will  cut  to  one  eye  and  the  Egyptian  will  cut  to 
several  eyes  or  hearts. 

406.  Q.  Is  it  possible  to  bring  the  Egyptian  or  Winter  onion  back  to  its  Winter 
original  form — that  is  to  say,  a  True  Top  set,  which  will  produce  a  large,  Onion. 
perfect  onion  ?    If  so,  what  is  the  procedure  ? 

A.  It  is  not  worth  the  effort.  Better  get  the  true  stock  at  once,  even  if 
at  double  prices. 

407.  Q.  Will  seed  beans  which  have  been  cut  by  the  weevil  germinate  ?  Weevii. 
A.  A  proportion  will;  but  no  one  till  after  trial  can  tell  what  that ii^ Beans. 

proportion  will  be.  The  weevil  in  beans  is  more  severe  than  the  pea  bug 
in  peas,  as  the  bean  weevil  is  more  ravenous,  eating  a  larger  proportion 
of  the  interior  of  the  bean,  and  frequently  where  one  insect  is  present  in 
a  bean  there  are  several,  which  in  time  will  completely  honeycomb  the 
bean.     Weevily  beans  should  at  once  be  burned  up. 

408.  Q.  What  causes  my  radishes  to  be  so  scabby  and  eaten  ?  Radish. 
A.  Worms  and  grubs.     No  help  for  the  present  crop.     Next  year  dress 

the  field  with  lime  and  salt  and  avoid  stable  manure  ;  use  commercial  fer- 
tilizers broadcasted  early  in  the  season.     Use  kainit. 

409.  Q.  Can  I  grow  chicory  as  a  substitute  for  coffee  ?  Chicory. 
A.  Yes ;  a  very  good  substitute.     It  is  grown  exactly  like  carrots  or 

parsnips ;  it  should  be  taken  up  in  October  and  sliced  and  dried.  The 
Landreths  cultivated  it  during  the  war,  in  the  sixties,  and  sold  the  roots 
to  coffee  men. 

410.  Q.  Does  not  self-blanching  celery,  both  white  and  golden,  show  a  Celery, 
tendency  to  produce  green  plants  ?  Seif-bianch- 


72 


QUERIES  AND   ANSWERS. 


Cutshort 
Beans. 


Brocootf. 


Rhubarb. 


Drought. 


Turnips. 


Celery, 
Self-blanch- 
ing. 


Firming  the 
Sou. 


Bean  Bust. 


A.  Yes,  to  revert  to  the  original  form  ;  and  it  is  well  it  does  so,  other- 
wise they  both  would  become  so  dwarfed  and  puny  as  to  soon  go  out  of 
use. 

411.  Q.  What  does  the  word  "  cutshort  "  signify,  as  applied  to  cornfield 
beans? 

A.  Cutshort  and  snapshort  both  signify  the  same  thing  ;  that  is,  a  bean 
producing  a  green,  edible  pod,  without  a  string,  but  they  are  not  always 
stringless. 

412.  Q.  What  is  the  difference  between  broccoli  and  cauliflower? 

A.  Broccoli,  though  quite  similar  to  cauliflower,  is  a  plant  taliing  longer 
to  mature.  It  does  not  make  so  dense  a  head  as  cauliflower  and  the  head 
is  often  divided  in  sections  by  leaves  protruding  through  it.  Broccoli,  as 
a  rule,  is  cultivated  in  a  more  southern  climate  than  cauliflower. 

413.  Q.  Can  a  fixed  variety  of  rhubarb  be  obtained  from  seed  ? 

A.  Not  absolutely  ;  but  great  improvements  have  been  accomplished  in 
the  last  few  years.  A  positively  fixed  type  can  only  be  had  from  cuttings 
from  roots  from  an  approved  type. 

414.  Q.  What  effect  has  drought  upon  root  crops,  such  as  beet,  carrot 
and  parsnip? 

A.  It  reduces  the  product  and  results  in  a  crop  of  dry,  tough,  inferior 
roots  and  a  stock  more  likely  to  decay  than  if  it  had  been  grown  under 
healthy  conditions.  Drought  sometimes  causes  them  to  shoot  to  seed  the 
first  season. 

415.  Q.  With  a  few  exceptions,  all  my  neighbors  who  planted  Lan- 
dreths'  turnip  seed  failed  to  obtain  good  bulbs,  only  strings ;  but  I  got  a 
crop.     How  is  that  ? 

A.  Unfavorable  circumstances  as  respects  soil  and  other  conditions.  If 
one  man  succeeded  and  others  did  not,  the  trouble  was  not  with  the  seed 
but  was  local ;  anyone  should  clearly  see  that. 

416.  Q.  Is  self-blanching  celery  tender  and  crisp,  or  must  it  be  earthed 
up  like  other  celery  ? 

A.  The  term  "self-blanching"  only  indicates  that  the  plants  have  a 
habit  of  developing  stocks  and  leaves  from  which  a  portion  of  the  usual 
green  color  has  been  eliminated  by  selection.  The  blanching  habit  does 
not  indicate  a  crisping  habit ;  that  is  only  obtained  by  exclusion  from  the 
sun,  banking  in  earth  or  between  boards. 

417.  Q.  I  noticed  the  other  day  an  old  trucker  running  a  wheelbarrow 
over  his  beet  seed  which  he  had  just  finished  drilling.  What  was  the 
object? 

A.  To  "firm  "  the  soil ;  that  is,  to  compress  the  seed  and  soil  that  they 
might  be  brought  into  contact  to  hasten  germination  and  facilitate  vege- 
tation. 

418.  Q.  My  beans  this  year  have  all  spotted.  Can  I  do  anything 
another  year  to  prevent  the  recurrence  of  this  effect  ? 

A.  You  can  adopt  a  preventive.  Bathe  the  seed  beans  before  sowing 
in  a  copper  solution,  but  don't  spray  the  vines  when  they  are  bearing 


QUERIES  AND  ANSWERS.  78 

marketable  pods  with  such  a  solution,  as  the  pods  might  carry  the 
poison. 

419.  Q.  How  is  it  seed  sown  in  the  drill  very  often  comes  up  in  spots  ?  vitauty. 
Does  it  indicate  unvital  seed  ? 

A.  The  question  almost  answers  itself,  for,  if  the  seed  sown  sprouted 
thickly  in  several  places  or  even  in  one  place,  it  demonstrates  that  had  the 
conditions  been  good  there  would  be  an  equal  germination  all  over  the 
field  ;  that  the  seed  was  all  right — something  else  was  wrong. 

420.  Q.  How  is  it  that  double  varieties  of  flowers  can't  be  produced  Doable 
from  seed  with  the  same  reliability  as  single  sorts  ?  oweis. 

A.  Double  flowers  are  abnormal,  that  is,  out  of  the  ordinary  form. 
The  sexual  organs  often  becoming  entirely  changed  in  development,  often 
indeed  becoming  leaves  themselves. 

421.  Q.  Can  I  apply  Paris  green  to  my  small  cabbages?  Paris  Green. 
A.  Yes,  when  they  are  very  small,  as  subsequent  rains  will  wash  out 

from  the  joints  any  of  the  mineral  poison  which  may  lodge  there;  but 
when  the  plants  are  heading  it  would  be  criminal  to  apply  Paris  green. 

422.  Q.  What  is  the  cause  of  smut  on  onion  sets  and  how  can  it  be  pre-  Onion  Smut. 
vented  ? 

A.  It  is  a  fungous  growth  which  may  be  partially  prevented  by  bath- 
ing the  seed  in  a  copper  solution  and  by  spraying  the  plants  with  the 
same.  A  soil-dressing  of  salt  has  a  good  effect.  It  can  be  had  in  kainit, 
which  also  contains  potash. 

423.  Q.  Can  crops  be  bred  to  ripen  earlier  by  selecting  seed  stock  from  Unripe  Seed, 
plants  not  thoroughly  ripe? 

A.  Yes,  a  very  noticeable  result  can  be  obtained  after  three  or  four 
years  of  diligent  application.  By  that  time  the  stock  is  truly  a  pedigree 
stock  and  will  develop  a  character  of  marked  earliness  compared  with 
the  stock  from  which  it  was  originally  derived. 

424.  Q.  What  is  your  experience  with  Winter  or  turf  oats  ?  Winter  Oats. 
A.  On  our  Virginia  plantations  we  have  cultivated  it  for  thirty  years 

with  great  satisfaction.  It  produces  a  greater  number  of  pounds  to  the 
acre  of  heavier  seed  than  we  can  obtain  from  any  other  sort.  We  sow  it 
in  September  and  it  gets  a  foot  high  by  December.  It  can  be  pastured 
all  Winter  but  not  after  starting  in  the  Spring. 

425.  Q.  How  is  it  that  to  obtain  a  continued  bloom  from  sweet  peas  the  Sweet  Peas 
flower  should  be  regularly  cut  oflf  ?  Blooming. 

A.  Simply  because  sweet  peas  are  like  everything  else  :  if  allowed  to 
develop  seed  the  drain  upon  the  vitality  of  the  plant  absorbs  all  its  vigor 
and  flowering  almost  ceases.  It  is  the  same  with  cucumbers.  Cut  off"  the 
young,  green  pickles,  and  there  will  be  continuous  blooming  ;  but  permit 
the  first  settings  to  form  large  fruit  and  the  blossoms  will  cease  to  appear. 

426.  Q.  Can  sweet  peas  be  successfully  grown  in  the  Southern  States  ?  p^***  ^®** 
A.  Certainly  ;  but  the  seed  must  be  sown  in  November,  December  or 

January,  that  the  vines  be  developed  in  the  early  Spring  months. 

427.  Q.  Is  it  possible  to  keep  watermelons  till  January  and  retain  their  Melons. 
flavor? 


74 


QUERIES  AND   ANSWERS. 


Radish. 


Egg  Plant, 
Sowing  Seed. 


English 
Beans. 


Harlequin 
Bug. 


Nomencla- 
ture. 


Agriculture. 


A.  Melons  of  late  development  picked  before  they  are  ripe,  can,  in  an 
ice  house,  be  kept  till  January,  with  the  flavor  still  attached  to  them. 
But  a  man's  desire  for  watermelon  is  not  so  keen  when  the  thermometer 
is  below  the  freezing  point  as  when  it  is  up  in  the  nineties.  Consequently 
he  turns  from  it  with  the  remark  that  it  hasn't  any  flavor. 

428.  Q.  I  have  a  patch  of  radish  grown  from  a  remnant  of  your  seed 
left  over  from  last  year  ;  then  the  crop  was  fine,  but  this  year  the  plants 
shot  up  to  seed  without  making  bulbs. 

A.  This  will  sometimes  happen,  and  is  a  consequence  of  local  condi- 
tions. Each  case  has  its  own  explanation.  Such  results  are  unprofitable 
to  market  gardeners,  but  they  never  give  us  any  concern,  for  we  cannot 
control  soil  treatment  or  meteorological  conditions. 

429.  Q.  Down  here  in  Florida  I  have  to  sow  my  egg  plant  seed  in 
August.     What  is  the  best  system? 

A.  The  worst  system  is  to  plant  the  seed  in  a  permanent  location  out  in 
the  open  sunlight.  If  that  must  be  done,  shade  the  planting  spots  with 
palmetto  leaves.  The  better  system  is  to  sow  the  seed  in  cold  frames, 
where  they  can  be  watered  with  manure  liquid  and  removed  to  the  field 
on  a  rainy  day.  Still  better  to  spot  the  seed  in  strawberry  boxes  or  pieces 
of  tough  turf  and  nurse  them  in  the  shade  till  three  inches  high.  Set  out 
in  this  way  and  they  won't  know  they  were  moved. 

430.  Q.  In  England,  as  a  boy,  I  was  almost  brought  up  on  broad  beans. 
Why  are  they  not  used  here  ? 

A.  Very  few  people  in  America  use  English  broad  beans,  as  the  cut- 
short  or  snap-short  varieties  are  superior.  Americans  have  no  room  for 
them;  in  fact,  they  won't  stand  an  American  sun. 

431.  Q.  We  are  troubled  in  our  cabbage  fields  this  year  with  the  green- 
and-yellow  bug,  somewhat  like  the  large  ladybug,  but  bigger — better 
described  as  like  a  terrapin.     What  can  we  do  to  destroy  it  ? 

A.  It  is  the  harlequin  bug,  one  of  the  worst  of  all  insect  pests.  It  is  a 
juice  sucker  and  cannot  be  destroyed  by  mineral  poisons  applied  to  the 
foliage,  as  it  does  not  eat  foliage  but  pierces  the  stem  and  extracts  the  sap. 
It  can  only  be  destroyed  by  hand  picking  and  by  suffocating  it  by  clog, 
ging  up  its  breathing  apparatus. 

432.  Q.  Why  is  it  that  there  is  so  much  confusion  in  the  names  of  veg- 
etables ? 

A.  The  irregularities  of  nomenclature  can  never  be  regulated  by  law 
or  by  the  resolutions  of  horticultural  associations,  for  dealers  in  seeds 
prefer  to  add  to  the  confusion  rather  than  lessen  it.  New  names  to  old 
things  give  opportunities  for  new  descriptions  and  higher  prices. 

433.  Q.  Is  agriculture  a  failure  ;  that  is,  is  it  unprofitable  ? 

A.  That  depends  on  what  constitutes  success.  If  success  alone  means 
a  big  fortune  and  prominence  in  city  life,  then  agriculture  is  indeed  a 
failure  ;  but  if  it  means  a  healthy  bodily  constitution,  a  fair  accumulation 
of  worldly  effects,  and  a  spirit  more  contented  than  possessed  by  men  in 
other  pursuits,  then  agriculture  is  a  success. 


QUERIES  AND  ANSWERS.  75 

434.  Q.  What  is  an  onion  set?  What  is  an 
A.  It  is  a  bulb  prematurely  matured,  a  consequence  primarily  of  pecu-  Onion  Set? 

liar  climatic  conditions,  and  secondarily  a  result  of  thick  seeding  and  con- 
sequently starvation.  It  is  not  a  perfectly  matured  bulb,  else,  however 
small,  it  would  produce  seed  the  following  year.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is 
not  a  bulb  arrested  in  its  growth  by  violence,  as  by  pulling  up  and  wring- 
ing off  the  green  top,  as  is  generally  the  case  in  the  treatment  of  Western 
onion  sets,  often  sold  at  what  appear  to  be  cheap  prices,  but  really  very 
dear  prices.  The  leaves  of  a  true  onion  set  always  die  down  perfectly. 
The  climate  of  Philadelphia  for  one  hundred  years  has  been  recognized 
as  particularly  adapted  to  the  growth  of  onion  sets  ;  indeed,  there,  noth- 
ing but  sets  can  be  grown,  for  try  ever  so  hard  and  frequently  to  produce 
onions  from  seed,  they  seldom  or  never  can  be  developed.  Every  plant 
makes  a  set  ;  the  climate  forces  them  to  it.  The  writer  does  not  believe 
good-keeping  sets,  or  first-class  sets  in  any  particular,  can  be  grown  in 
any  locality  where  full-sized  market  onions  can  be  grown,  the  conditions 
required  for  the  one  crop  being  antagonistic  to  the  other. 

435.  Q.  Does  the  color  of  beet  leaves  indicate  the  color  of  their  roots?  Beet  l^eaves, 
A.  Not  always.     Some  beets,  as  the  Dark  Ked  Turnip  forms,  have  dark  Color. 

red  foliage,  but  the  Long  Blood  Red,  having  a  flesh  fully  as  deeply  col- 
ored as  any  other,  has  leaves  of  varied  colors,  some  red  and  some  green, 
the  flesh  of  the  green-leaved  roots  being  fully  as  red  as  the  red-leaved  roots. 

436.  Q.  What  does  the  word  "Savoy"  signify,  as  applied  to  spinach  savoy. 
and  cabbage  ? 

A,  The  expression  "Savoy"  was  first  attached  to  cabbage  when  a 
small,  crumpled-leaved  variety  was  introduced  from  the  kingdom  of  Savoy, 
Italy.  Subsequently  David  Landreth  found  a  spinach  with  crumpled 
leaves  which  he  called  "Savoy  spinach,"  because  it  was  crumpled  like 
the  leaves  of  the  Savoy  cabbage. 

437.  Q.  What  does  the  word  "  Cos  "  signify  as  applied  to  lettuce  ?  Cos. 
A.  It  is  applied  to  a  sort  which  originated,  or  at  least  was  found,  on 

the  Island  of  Cos,  near  Malta,  in  the  Mediterranean  sea. 

438.  Q.  What  is  the  effect  of  nitrate  of  soda  on  garden  vegetables  ?  Nitrate  of 
Can  it  be  used  to  the  exclusion  of  other  fertilizers  ?  Soda. 

A.  Nitrate  of  soda  is  valuable  for  its  nitrogen,  one  of  the  four  princi- 
pal essentials  to  plant  growth,  which  are  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  potash 
and  lime.  This  being  the  case,  nitrate  of  soda,  it  will  be  perceived,  is  not 
a  complete  food  and  should  not  be  depended  upon  exclusively.  Nitrogen 
can  be  had  in  many  other  forms. 

439.  Q.  Why  do  cabbage  plants  so  often  act  differently  as  respects  the  Cabbage, 
production  of  heads  when  the  treatment  has  been  just  the  same? 

A.  Variability  as  respects  heading,  as  evinced  by  a  want  of  uniformity 
of  heading  or  period  of  heading,  is  all  due  to  conditions,  many  of  them 
beyond  our  observation.  Ofttimes  an  injury  is  received  by  plants  in  the 
seedbed,  or  it  may  be  frost,  or  excessive  drought,  or  it  may  be  the  con- 
dition of  the  land  into  which  the  cabbage  was  transplanted. 


76 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS. 


Plant 
Degeneracy. 


Cheat. 


Transplant- 
ing. 


Fences. 


Cloche. 


Insects  or 
Fungi. 


Clover  or 
Peas. 


440.  Q.  Do  plants  run  out  or  degenerate  ? 

A.  Families  seldom  run  out,  but  varieties  frequently  do.  For  instance, 
the  potato  as  a  family  was  never  equally  developed  in  all  good  qualities, 
as  at  present,  but  there  have  been  hundreds  of  instances  of  particular 
sorts  of  superlative  merit  which  are  now  forgotten  varieties  which  degen- 
erated and  passed  out  of  use.  Such  degeneracy  applies  more  particularly 
to  those  specific  sorts  of  plants  as  are  propagated  by  grafts,  buds  or  tubers, 
as  in  those  cases  the  collective  diseases  of  more  or  less  remote  parents, 
scions  or  buds  are  often  passed  down  through  a  long  line  of  progeny.  Not 
so  with  other  plants  produced  from  true  seed,  as  either  through  the  male 
or  female  flower  the  blood  by  impregnation  is  changed  and  the  product 
generally  strengthened  physically. 

441.  Q.  Does  wheat  turn  to  cheat? 

A.  No.  Seed  of  cheat,  a  hardy  grass,  botanically  known  as  Bromtis 
sicalinus,  is  often  sold  in  imperfectly  cleaned  seed  wheat,  and  being  more 
hardy  than  wheat  survives  wheat  in  severe  Winters.  The  ignorant 
farmer  then  jumps  to  the  idea  that  his  wheat  has  turned  to  cheat. 

442.  Q.  Why  are  root  crops  intended  for  seed  nearly  always  trans- 
planted ? 

A.  To  induce  a  degree  of  debility  of  constitution — to  check  the  luxuri- 
ance of  growth,  all  of  which  induces  a  disposition  to  shoot  to  seed  and 
helps  to  maintain  a  standard  quality. 

443.  Q.  What  is  the  cost  of  supporting  the  fences  in  the  State  of  Penn- 
sylvania ? 

A.  The  official  report  places  the  annual  repairs  at  about  ten  millions  of 
dollars. 

444.  Q.  What  is  a  cloche  ? 

A.  A  large  bell  glass  about  sixteen  inches  high  and  broad,  used  in 
France  to  force  vegetables.  A  gardener  with  100  of  these  can  surpass  all 
his  neighbors  in  forcing  early  vegetables.  Particularly  valuable  in  the 
forcing  of  salads,  radish,  and  in  the  protection  of  vines  from  cucumber 
bugs. 

445.  Q.  Which  is  most  to  be  dreaded  by  the  gardener — destructive  in- 
sects or  fungi? 

A.  Fungi  most  decidedly,  as  it  works  so  insidiously.  Insects  can  be 
seen  and  partially  understood,  picked  off,  frightened  oflF,  killed  ofi  ;  but 
parasitic  fungi  may  be  present  for  weeks  without  it  being  recognized. 
There  are  many  forms  of  fungi  feeding  upon  the  leaves  and  roots  of 
garden  vegetables,  most  of  them  fortunately  too  trivial  to  deserve  notice. 

446.  Q.  What  advantage  has  Scarlet  clover  over  Red  clover  for  plow- 
ing under  as  a  green  manure,  and  has  one  or  either  any  advantage  over 
Southern  cow  pea  ? 

A.  No  advantage,  except  that  the  Scarlet  clover  is  very  rapid  in  devel- 
opment, attaining  in  a  season,  from  August  to  June,  as  much  development 
as  Red  clover  would  arrive  at  in  twice  the  time.  Cow  peas  sown  in  July 
can  be  plowed  under  in  September  and  October,  and  are  very  good  ferlil- 


QUERIES  AND  ANSWERS.  77 

izers,  being  potash  gatherers  from  the  soil  below  and  nitrogen  gatherers 
from  the  air  above. 

447.  Q.  How  late  can  Crimson  clover  be  successfully  sown  in  the  lati-  Scarlet 
tude  of  Savannah  ?  Clover. 

A.  Sown  as  late  as  November  1st,  it  should  attain  a  sufficient  vigor  of 
growth  to  make  a  big  crop  in  the  Spring  ;  sown  later,  it  will  of  course 
flourish,  but  a  big  crop  of  hay  to  cut  or  green  stuff  to  plow  under  cannot 
be  looked  for  unless  the  plant  had  a  good  start  in  Autumn.  No  striking 
fertilizing  results  can  be  expected  from  a  plo wed-under  crop  of  Scarlet 
clover  where  the  sowing  of  seed  has  been  late  and  where  the  plowing 
under  is  early,  as  its  merit  consists  in  the  collection  of  potash  from  the 
soil  by  the  roots  and  of  nitrogen  by  the  leaves  and  roots  for  storage  in 
the  root  galls,  and  all  this  cannot  be  done  to  any  great  extent  between 
November  and  April.     Sown  in  August  the  results  are  better. 

448.  Q.  Is  there  a  marked  difference  in  the  habit  of  tomatoes  grown  Tomatoes, 
upon  light  and  heavy  soils  ? 

A.  Grown  on  light  soils  the  vines  are  puny,  the  foliage  small  and  sparse, 
the  fruit  small  but  very  early,  and  because  of  thin  foliage  liable  to  sun- 
burn.    On  heavy  soil  the  conditions  are  just  the  contrary. 

449.  Q.  What  is  your  experience  in  the  use  of  Lobos  guano?  Lobos  Guano 
A.  It  is  that  it  is  not  worth  quarter  the  money  asked  for  it.    No  reliance 

can  be  placed  upon  it  for  the  making  of  a  crop.  Put  your  money  in  some 
other  fertilizer. 

450.  Q.  My  cabbage  plants  in  beds,  now  ready  for  setting  in  the  field,  cabbage 
are  ruined  by  black  stem,  the  bark  of  the  stem  slufflng  off.  What  is  the  Fungus, 
trouble  and  what  the  remedy  ? 

A.  The  disease  is  a  parasitic  fungous  growth.  There  is  no  remedy  that 
would  justify  the  assumption  of  subsequent  expenses  on  your  cabbage 
crop.  Better  pull  up  and  burn  the  entire  lot  of  plants  and  purchase 
healthy  plants  from  an  unaffected  bed. 

451.  Q.  What  is  leaf  blight  ?  teaf  Bligbt. 
A,  It  is  a  decay  consequent  upon  arrested  nutrition  following  insect  or 

fungous  attack.  Leaf  blight  as  an  expression  does  not  indicate  the  nature 
of  disease,  for  the  blight  may  follow  ravage  by  either  insects  or  fungus. 
Leaf  blight  on  garden  vegetables  is  generally  the  outward  sign  of  a  para- 
sitic fungus  known  also  as  rust,  mold,  smut,  mildew.  It  is  difficult  to  de- 
scribe the  almost  inconceivable  smallness  of  the  most  destructive  garden 
fungi. 

452.  Q.  How  is  a  resin  wash  made?  Resin  Wash. 
A.  Take  three  pounds  pulverized  resin,  one  pound  pulverized  caustic 

soda,  one  gallon  fish  oil,  and,  with  sufficient  water,  boil  till  dissolved  and 
an  hour  longer.  Add  twenty  gallons  of  water,  strain  and  spray.  This 
is  a  good  insecticide  for  sap  suckers,  acting  by  contact. 

453.  Q,  Name  a  good  preventive  against  the  cutworm  in  corn.  Cutworm, 
A.  Kainit,  a  potash  salt  which  destroys  the  worm  while  at  same  time 

stimulating  the  plant  to  vigorous  growth. 


78 


QUERIES  AND  ANSWERS. 


Grubs. 


Arsenical 
Poisons. 


Grasses 

for 

dry  soils. 


Fangi  and 
Insects. 


Plant 
Diseases. 


Pea  Mold. 


Rye  Grasses. 


Half-ripe 
Seed. 


Vegetable 
Diseases. 


454.  Q.  What  is  the  best  application  to  check  the  ravages  of  under- 
ground  grubs  ? 

A.  Kerosene  emulsion  has  been  found  beneficial  upon  root-crops  of 
radish,  and  will  be  found  offensive  to  all  grubs. 

455.  Q.  What  are  arsenical  food  poisons  ? 

A.  Paris  green,  arsenite  of  copper,  white  arsenic,  arsenious  oxide,  Lon- 
don purple,  calcium  arsenite. 

456.  Q.  What  kinds  of  grass  are  best  adapted  for  culture  in  arid  dis- 
tricts ? 

A.  Those  with  deeply-penetrating  roots  and  others  with  thickened  or 
fleshy,  creeping,  underground  stems.  Gramma,  Buffalo,  Bermuda,  and 
Wire  grass  are  the  best.     Shallow-rooted,  broad-leaved  grasses  won't  do. 

457.  Q.  Do  insects  dwelling  upon  garden  vegetables  eat  fungi  growing 
upon  the  same  plants? 

A.  Yes  ;  very  generally  ;  and  a  portion  not  eaten  are  taken  up  by  the 
hairs  of  insects  and  thus  carried  from  the  infected  plants  to  healthy  ones. 
Some  garden  fungi  germinate  and  continue  to  grow  upon  the  bodies  of 
insects. 

458.  Q.  Is  disease  hereditary  in  plants  ? 

A.  By  analogy  it  is  so,  and  it  is  believed  observations  have  proven  it. 
It  is  impossible  to  overestimate  the  importance  of  caution  in  the  selection 
of  healthy  seed. 

-^59.  Q.  What  causes  pea  mold  ? 

A.  There  are  several  forms  of  pea  mold.  One  developed  principally 
under  conditions  of  damp,  close  atmosphere  and  retarded  by  dry  weather. 
Another  form  is  favored  by  dry  atmosphere  and  retarded  by  rain.  Noth- 
ing can  be  offered  as  a  satisfactory  remedy  to  destroy  the  fungus  while 
preserving  at  the  same  time  the  value  of  the  crop. 

460.  Q.  How  can  I  distinguish  Perennial  Rye  grass  from  the  Italian  ? 
A.  The  bases  of  the  Perennial  are  red  and  flat.    The  bases  of  the  Italian 

are  red  and  perfectly  round. 

461.  Q.  Can  a  variety  of  a  garden  vegetable  be  made  earlier  by  growing 
it  from  half-ripened  seed  ? 

A.  Experiments  have  demonstrated  this  to  be  so,  provided  the  system 
be  continued  for  three  or  four  successive  generations.  Plants  grown  from 
such  pedigree  seed  show  an  early  habit  because  they  are  weak  and  puny. 
Continued  long  enough  the  resultant  crops  would  become  exceedingly 
unproductive. 

463.  Q.  Are  diseases  of  vegetables  increasing? 

A.  No  ;  not  to  any  great  extent.  But  the  close  intercourse  of  remote 
sections  of  the  country  tends  to  introduce  into  every  section  the  fungous 
diseases  of  every  other  section,  and  under  the  conditions  of  greatly  in- 
creased scientific  agricultural  knowledge  the  public  has  its  attention 
called  to  what  some  years  ago  would  have  passed  unnoticed.  Then  as 
now  nearly  every  esculent  vegetable  was  subject  to  disease,  in  fact  it  is 
rare  that  any  garden  vegetable  can  be  found  not  supporting  a  foreign 


QUERIES  AND  ANSWERS.  79 

growth.  In  the  Bloomsdale  experimental  garden  every  plant  of  every 
family  may  be  said  to  be  affected  either  iu  leaf,  stem  or  root,  and  the 
plants  there  grown  are  healthy  as  can  be  found  anywhere.  Smut  or  mil- 
dew or  some  other  form  of  disease  may  be  said  to  be  always  present. 

463.  Q.  The  United  States  Secretary  of  Agriculture  declares  that  the  The  Plow. 
plow  is  a  humbug.    Is  he  correct  ? 

A.  After  he  invents  a  better  implement  he  will  be  a  better  authority. 
Political  commissioners  do  not  make  practical  farmers. 

464.  Q.  "What  is  the  potato  vine  blight?  Potato  Blight 
A.  The  potato  is  subject  to  the  attacks  of  several  parasitic  fungi,  two 

or  more  of  which  attack  clover  and  lettuce,  appearing  as  patches  of  white 
film,  which,  in  a  few  weeks,  spread  over  the  entire  plant,  extract  the 
juice  and  reduce  the  vigor  of  the  plant  so  that  growth  of  tubers  ceases. 
There  is  no  remedy  for  this  disease,  and  to  prevent  its  spread  exceedingly 
great  caution  has  to  be  observed  in  burning  all  the  stems  of  the  infected 
crop. 

465.  Q.  Where  does  the  white  grub  come  from?  White  Grub. 
A.  The  while  grub  is  the  larv?e  of  the  familiar  June  bug,  or,  more  cor- 
rectly. May  beetle,  which,  in  the  early  Spring  months,  enters  dwellings 

in  the  evening,  swarming  about  the  lights,  buzzing  loudly  and  violently, 
knocking  themselves  against  the  walls  and  ceilings.  The  perfect  insect 
feeds  upon  the  foliage  of  trees,  and  is  more  or  less  destructive.  The  eggs 
are  deposited  in  the  earth,  and  hatch  in  about  a  month.  The  grubs  re- 
main in  the  ground,  doing  little  injury  till  the  second  Summer,  when 
they  attack  the  roots  of  plants.  They  remain  as  grubs  in  the  earth  for 
nearly  three  years,  by  which  time  they  reach  a  length  of  two  inches,  and 
often  appear  in  such  great  numbers  as  to  do  immense  damage. 

466.  Q.  My  asparagus,  now  about  ready  to  send  to  market,  is  being  de-  Asparagus 
stroyed  by  the  beetle.    What  can  I  do  ?  Beetle. 

A.  Nothing  can  be  done  to  destroy  the  asparagus  beetle  upon  the  mar- 
ketable shoots,  as  mineral  poisons  would  be  destructive  to  human  life,  and 
offensive  applications  would  destroy  the  value  of  the  crop. 

Asparagus  beds  past  the  marketable  condition  of  growth  can  be  dressed 
advantageously  with  a  solution  of  a  table^poonful  of  Paris  green  in 
four  gallons  of  water,  which  will  be  generally  found  to  kill  the  slugs. 
Sometimes  effective  results  ensue  by  the  application  of  freshly  slaked  lime  i 

while  the  dew  is  on  them,  for  the  least  particle  of  lime  touching  the  skin 
of  a  slug  is  certain  to  kill  it. 

467.  Q.  Why  do  turnips,  beets  and  carrots  keep  better  some  seasons  Turnip 
than  others  ?  PreserTatlon. 

A.  Probably  because  better  protected  from  frost — or  possibly  no  amount 
of  protection  would  have  prevented  decay,  as  the  roots  may  have  been 
sickly,  consequent  upon  an  unhealthy  growth,  the  result  of  Autumn 
weather  conditions,  either  too  wet  or  too  dry,  or  damage  by  insects  or 
fungous  growth. 


80 


QUERIES   AND  ANSWERS. 


Exhaustive 
Crops. 


Green  4gg    q   q^^  j  consider  a  mass  of  hog  weeds  plowed  under  as  a  raanur- 

Manuring.       j^g  of  the  land  ? 

A.  Yes  ;  to  a  small  extent ;  but  not  so  etBcient  as  if  the  plants  plowed 
under  were  noted  as  collectors  of  potash  from  soil  depths  or  of  nitrogen 
from  the  air.  The  benefit  from  a  mass  of  common  surface  weeds  turned 
under  is  more  from  aerating  the  soil  than  from  any  direct  fertilizing  effect. 

469.  Q.  Why  do  some  crops  seem  to  poison  the  land,  unfitting  it  for 
others  ? 

A.  Crops  all  act  differently  upon  the  soil  by  taking  from  it  different 
foods  or  different  proportions  of  food  ingredients.  Consequently  they 
leave  the  land  in  different  conditions.  Cabbage,  for  instance,  is  such  a 
rank  feeder  that  it  takes  everything  it  can  reach.  Spinach  the  same. 
Other  crops  seem  to  render  the  soil  inert.  Millet,  for  instance,  is  so  slow 
to  cover  the  land  that  the  soil  suffers  by  exposure  to  sun,  wind  and  rain; 
it  becomes  baked  and  after  the  millet  is  cut  off  seems  almost  dead. 

470.  Q.  What  are  bulbs  ? 
A.  Fleshy  buds,  generally  underground,  but  sometimes  formed  on  the 

surface.     They  might  be  termed  abbreviated  stems  of  plants. 

471.  Q.   What  is  the  reason  that  wheat  and  other  grains  are  so  valuable  ? 
A.  Because  of  the  starch  they  contain  in  admixture  with  nitrogenous 

matter. 

472.  Q.  Why  is  a  potato  called  a  tuber? 
A.  The  natural  formation  of  the  potato  has  to  be  called  something,  and 

it  might  just  as  well  be  called  a  tuber  as  something  else.     The  word  is 
from  a  Latin  root,  to  swell.     It  is  an  enlarged  underground  bud. 

473.  Q.  Do  plants  breathe  ? 
A.  Certainly ;  though  not  exactly  in  the  sense  of  animal  respiration. 

Plants,  however,  take  in  air  and  decompose  it,  retaining  certain  portions 
and  rejecting  others. 

474.  Q.  How  much  water  do  plants  exhale  ? 
A.  Wheat,  peas,  beans,  during  their  season  of  growth  transpire  quite 

two  hundred  times  their  dry  weight  of  water.     An  acre  of  cabbage  will 
transpire  in  a  day  over  ten  tons  of  water. 

475.  Q.  To  what  distance  can  pollen  be  carried  ? 
A.  Cases  are  recorded  where  pollen  has  been  wafted  thirty  miles. 

476.  Q.  How  long  will  pollen  retain  its  vitality  ? 
A.  Sometimes  for  months— quite  long  enough  to  transport  it  from  one 

country  to  another. 

477.  Q.  What  are  the  longest  instances  of  retention  of  vitality  in  seeds? 
A.  Seeds  of  leguminous  plants  have  been  known  to  sprout  after  being 

kept  for  sixty  years.    Rye  has  been  known  to  sprout  after  one  hundred 
and  forty  years. 

478.  Q.  How  can  the  germination  of  seeds  be  stimulated  ? 
A.  By  soaking  in  weak  chlorine  water. 

Sowing  Seeds     479.  Q.  Is  it  the  best  policy  in  sowing  small  seeds,  as  turnip,  spinach, 
carrot  and  beet,  to  drill  on  the  level  or  on  ridges. 


Bulbs. 


Starch. 


Tubers. 


Inhalatios. 


Exhalation. 


Pollen. 


PoUen. 


Titallty. 


Germination. 


QUERIES   AND  ANSWERS.  81 

A.  On  ridges  ;  but  not  more  than  of  one  inch  elevation  when  settled 
down.  On  ridges  the  seed  just  drilled  is  not  subject  to  flooding  by  rain 
and  throughout  the  season  is  more  easily  liept  clean. 

480.  Q.  When  spraying  plants  how  much  solution  should  be  applied?   Spraying. 
A.  Just  enough  to  thoroughly  moisten  the  foliage  of  the  plants. 

481.  Q.  Can  a  fungus  working  beneath  the  surface  of  the  soil  be  checked  Fungus, 
by  Bordeaux  mixture  ? 

A.  Very  doubtful. 

482.  Q.  Can  cabbage  plants  which  have  developed  club  root  be  made  Club  Root 
healthy  by  any  application  ?  *° 

A.  No.     Once  the  fungus  has  taken  hold  of  a  cabbage  plant  no  appli-    ^     *^®' 
cation  will  make  that  plant  healthy.     As  in  the  case  of  turnips,  a  preven- 
tive is  an  application  of  sixty  to  seventy  bushels  to  the  acre  of  air- 
slacked  stone  lime. 

483.  Q.  What  is  the  best  remedy  to  use  in  the  treatment  of  club  root  in  ciub  Root 
turnip  ?  in 

A.  There  is  no  remedy  to  arrest  the  disease,  but  air-slacked  stone  lime  turnip. 
used  at  the  rate  of  seventy  to  eighty  bushels  to  the  acre,  and  applied  be- 
fore the  sowing  of  the  seed,  retards  if  it  does  not  destroy  the  fungus. 

484.  Q.  How  can  I  make  Bordeaux  mixture  ?  Bordeaux 
A.  Provide  half  sections  of  whisky  or  vinegar  barrels  in  which  to  do  Mixture. 

the  mixing  and  contain  the  solution.  Take  as  follows,  or  in  greater  pro- 
portions, five  pounds  sulphate  of  copper,  five  pounds  quicklime,  twenty- 
five  gallons  water.  Dissolve  the  sulphate  in  two  gallons  of  hot  water, 
slack  the  lime  in  two  gallons  of  water,  and  thoroughly  strain  it  to  remove 
all  sediment,  and  when  cold  mix  it  with  the  solution  of  sulphate.  Then 
mix  the  whole  in  the  remaining  twenty-one  gallons  of  water. 

485.  Q.  What  is  the  name  of  the  bean  rust  and  how  can  it  be  prevented?  Bean  Rust. 
A.  The  bean  rust  is  a  fungus  known  as  anthracnose,  and  it  attacks  not 

only  the  pod  but  the  foliage  and  stems.  A  partial  preventive  is,  as  soon 
as  the  young  plants  are  above  ground  to  spray  them  with  Bordeaux  mix- 
ture and  repeat  the  application  every  week. 

486.  Q.  What  is  the  best  spraying  solution  to  stop  leaf  blight  on  potato  Spraying. 
vines  ? 

A.  Bordeaux  mixture  reduced  to  half  strength  by  the  addition  of  water. 

487.  Q.  Do  you  advise  a  bath  for  potato  seed  before  planting  ?  Potato  Bath. 
A.  Yes  ;  plunge  the  cuttings  for  two  or  three  hours  in  a  solution  made 

in  the  proportion  of  ten  ounces  of  corrosive  sublimate  to  eight  gallons  of 
water.  This  deadly  poison  is  a  preventive  of  the  fungus  causing  scab 
on  young  potato  tubers. 

488.  Q.  What  should  be  done  to  drive  off  the  squash  bug  ?  Squash  Bug. 
A.  As  these  bugs  are  sap  suckers  no  application  of  mineral  or  other 

poisons  is  effective.  The  only  remedy  is  after  the  crop  is  over  to  destroy 
all  vines  and  avoid  planting  on  the  infected  ground. 

489.  Q.  What  is  the  best  remedy  against  the  striped  cucumber  beetle  ?   cucumber 
A.  There  is  no  best  remedy.    Spraying  with  arsenites  applied  from  an  Beetle. 


82 


QUERIES  AND  ANSWERS. 


tiarrae. 


Squash  Borer 


Melon  Lice. 


Kerosene 
Emulsion. 


Kerosene 
Emulsion. 


Use  of 
Paris  Green. 


Destruction 
of 

Insects. 


Plant  Foods. 


under-spray  nozzle  is  sometimes  effsctive,  as  they  are  consumers  of  leaf 
tissue,  but  they  are  insects  hard  to  fight. 

490.  Q.  What  are  larva)  ? 

A.  Worms  or  grubs  hatched  from  the  eggs  of  insects.  The  larvae  form 
is  that  in  which  insects  do  most  damage  to  vegetation.  After  a  time  the 
larvfe  assume  the  quiescent  state,  or  pupa  form,  in  which  they  exist  during 
Winter,  to  appear  in  Spring  in  a  fourtli  form,  the  perfect  or  imago  form. 

491.  Q.  Is  there  a  remedy  against  the  squash  vine  borer? 

A.  None  yet  known.  An  effective  plan  is  to  kill  the  moths,  which  can 
be  done  after  sunset,  when  they  roost  in  full  view  upon  the  leaves. 

492.  Q.  My  melons  are  covered  with  lice.     What  shall  I  do  ? 

A,  Spray  with  one  pound  whale-oil  soap  dissolved  in  six  gallons  of 
water,  or  with  fish-oil  soap  dissolved  in  eight  gallons  of  water ;  or,  still 
better,  use  kerosene  emulsion.  Bordeaux  mixture  or  Paris  green  is  of  no 
value  in  this  case,  as  these  insects  are  of  the  sap-sucking  order. 

493.  Q.  How  is  kerosene  emulsion  made  ? 

A.  Take  a  half  pound  of  common  softsoap  and  one  gallon  of  water, 
and,  by  agitation,  make  a  complete  sud.  Mix  this  sud  by  violent  churn- 
ing with  two  gallons  of  kerosene.  It  is  a  contact  insecticide  of  great 
penetrative  power  and  must  be  diluted  by  ten  or  twelve  parts  of  water. 

494.  Q,  Against  what  insects  can  I  use  kerosene  emulsion  ? 

A.  It  is  eff"ective  against  all  garden  lice,  rose  slugs,  leaf  rollers,  root 
maggots,  hairy  caterpillars  and  scale  insects. 

495.  Q.  Can  anything  be  done  to  prevent  Paris  green  from  burning 
foliage  ? 

A.  One  pound  of  Paris  green  to  one  hundred  gallons  of  water  is  a 
rather  strong  solution,  but  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  gallons  of  water  one 
pound  of  Paris  green  is  safe.  Safety  can  be  assured  by  adding  four  gal- 
lons of  limewater. 

496.  Q.  Can  all  garden  insect  pests  be  destroyed  alike  ? 

A.  No  ;  because  there  are  two  distinct  orders  of  insects  destructive  to 
garden  vegetables — the  leaf  eaters  and  the  sap  suckers.  The  first  take 
leaf  matter  into  their  stomachs  and  can  generally  be  poisoned  by  a  variety 
of  substances,  as  Paris  green,  London  purple,  etc.  The  second  order  can 
only  be  destroyed  by  bodily  contact  with  some  application  which,  if  suc- 
cessfully applied,  stops  the  breathing  apparatus  of  the  insects.  This  ma- 
terial may  be  preparations  of  oil,  tobacco  dust,  pyrethrum,  lime. 

497.  Q.  Can  vegetables  and  farm  crops  be  divided  into  classes,  each  re- 
quiring distinct  food? 

A.  Partially  so,  and  divided  into  three  classes  : 

1.  Those  requiring  an  excess  of  potash,  as  peas,  beans,  potatoes,  clover» 
flax. 

2.  Those  requiring  much  nitrogen,  as  beets,  cabbage,  oats,  wheat,  bar- 
ley and  hemp. 

3.  Those  requiring  laige  amounts  of  phosphoric  acid,  as  radish,  turnip 
and  corn. 


QUERIES   AND  ANSWERS.  83 

498.  Q.  What  are  the  average  commercial  prices  of  fertilizers,  taking  Value, 
each  separatel}^  ?  Plant  Foods. 

A.  The  average  prices  of  the  leading  four  manurial  substances  are  : 

Bone  phosphate  of  lime 1^  cents  per  pound. 

Nitrate  of  potassa 6^     "  " 

Nitrate  of  soda 2^     "  " 

Sulphate  of  ammonia 3^     "  " 

Sulphate  of  lime ^     "  " 

499.  Q.  Is  nitrogen  as  necessary  as  writers  make  out  ?  Talue  of 
A.  Nitrogenized  matter  in  the  soil  is  absolutely  necessary  to  the  growth  ^^*^*'S®"* 

of  vigorous  crops  ;  and  the  fact  cannot  be  too  strongly  impressed  on  every 
gardener  that  nitrogen  and  phosphoric  acid  are  the  leading  manurial  ad- 
ditions required,  and  a  cheap  and  efficient  method  of  application  should 
occupy  his  constant  attention. 

500.  Q.  How  do  plants  get  nitrogen  ?  Source  of 
A.  Nitrogen,  in  the  form  of  atmospheric  ammonia,  is  largely  obtained  Nitrogen. 

"by  plants  through  their  leaves,  but  to  an  equally  large  extent  does  the 
soil  get  it  by  absorption,  and,  if  covered,  it  holds  it ;  and  in  this  simple 
fact  is  one  of  the  several  secrets  of  green  manuring,  the  entire  benefit  not 
being  through  plant  absorption. 

501.  Q.  Where  can  I  get  nitrogen  ?  Nitrogen 
A.  Assimilable  nitrogen  may  be  had,  to  the  extent  of  twenty  per  cent..  Supply. 

in  sulphate  of  ammonia,  fifteen  per  cent,  in  nitrate  of  soda,  fourteen  per 
cent,  in  nitrate  of  potassa,  or  it  can  be  had  in  dried  blood  or  flesh  from 
slaughter  houses  or  fish  factories.  The  nitrates,  preferably  that  of  potassa, 
are  best  for  vegetables,  especially  root  crops  ;  the  sulphates  for  the  cereals. 
503.  Q.  Where  can  I  get  potash  ?  Potash 

A.  Potash  is  contained  in  wood  ashes,  but  is  obtainable  in  larger  quan-  Supply. 
titles  in  nitrate  of  potassa,  commonly  known  as  saltpetre,  which  salt 
should  contain  forty-five  per  cent,  potash,  with  the  valuable  addition  of 
fourteen  per  cent,  of  nitrogen. 

503.  Q.  Where  can  I  get  phosphate  of  lime  ?  Phosohate 
A.  Phosphate  of  lime  can  be  had,  to  the  extent  of  fifty  per  cent.,  in  Supply. 

bone  dust,  seventy  per  cent,  in  bone  ashes  and  bone  black,  and  in  super- 
phosphate of  lime,  which  is  phosphate  of  lime  treated  with  sulphuric 
acid,  and  which,  when  properly  done,  should  contain  forty  per  cent,  of 
soluble  phosphate. 

504.  Q.  How  and  where  is  lime  found  ?  Ume. 
A.  Lime  is  found  chiefly  in  the  carbonate  of  lime,  as  chalk  or  limestone, 

and  in  the  sulphate  of  lime,  as  gypsum  or  plaster  of  Paris.  The  sulphate 
is  best,  as  most  soluble. 

505.  Q.  Where  do  plants  get  their  food  ?  Plant  Food 
A.  Plants  draw  some  food  from  the  air  by  their  leaves,  but  most  from 

the  earth  by  their  roots.    The  composition  of  the  air  is  quite  constant, 


84 


QUERIES  AND  ANSWERS. 


Cabbage 
Worm. 


Kerosene 
£i>iolsion. 


Cabbage 
Liouse. 


Onion  Fly. 


Seed  to  Sow 
100  Yards. 


but  the  character  of  the  soil  is  exceedingly  variable,  and  crops  grown; 
continuously  upon  a  soil  draw  out  one  or  more  of  its  nutritive  principles  ; 
consequently,  it  can  only  be  reinvigorated  by  returning  to  it  those  ele- 
ments removed  in  the  crops. 

506.  Q.  What  shall  I  apply  to  my  cabbage  to  kill  the  green  worm  ? 

A.  The  cabbage  worm  is  a  green  caterpillar,  feeding  on  nearly  all 
broad-leaved  vegetables,  especially  cabbage,  cauliflower  and  lettuce.  It 
is  the  larvse  of  a  white  butterfly  of  European  origin.  Paris  green  will 
poison  these  caterpillars,  but,  except  in  the  very  early  stages  of  cabbage 
growth,  it  is  unsafe  to  apply  so  poisonous  an  article  to  a  plant  which 
might  enfold  the  poisonous  compound  within  its  leaves  and  kill  those  who 
afterwards  ate  the  plant.     Pyrethrum  has  been  found  effective. 

507.  Q.  Are  there  several  ways  of  preparing  kerosene  emulsion  ? 

A.  Yes  ;  several  ways  of  arriving  at  tlie  same  end — as  take  :  One  part 
sour  milk,  two  parts  kerosene,  thoroughly  mixed  by  rapid  agitation  till 
the  combination  forms  a  creamy  liquid.  To  this  add  fourteen  parts  water, 
and  apply  by  an  injector,  or  dash  over  the  vines  with  a  broom.  The 
emulsion  may  also  be  made  with  :  One  quart  soft  soap,  one  quart  kero- 
sene, two  quarts  water  mixed  by  forcible  agitation,  and  diluted  with 
sixteen  quarts  of  water.     Apply  to  the  plants  forcibly  with  a  syringe. 

508.  Q.  Can  I  kill  the  cabbage  louse? 

A.  The  Downy  cabbage  louse  is  a  mealy,  soft-bodied  insect,  sometimes 
appearing  in  thousands,  swarming*  like  bees  upon  the  leaves  of  young 
cabbage,  Brussels  sprouts  and  cauliflower.  It  can  be  checked  off  by  the 
application  of  kerosene  emulsion,  but  it  is  diflicult  to  drive  it  off  entirely. 

509.  Q.  Can  the  ravage  of  the  onion  fly  be  stopped  ? 

A.  Equal  parts  of  wood  ashes  and  land  plaster  dusted  very  thoroughly 
on  the  young  plants  will  generally  drive  them  off.  An  application  of 
some  efficiency  is,  one  part  of  Paris  green,  mixed  with  forty  or  fifty  parts 
of  land  plaster  or  flour. 

510.  Q.  Give  me  a  rule  to  indicate  how  much  seed  to  purchase  for  a 
garden,  the  length  of  the  rows  in  such  case  being  one  hundred  yards. 

A.  One  ounce  of  cabbage,  cauliflower,  coUards,  broccoli,  Brussels 
sprouts,  egg-plant,  kale,  kohl-rabi,  pepper.     All  these  to  be  transplanted. 

Two  ounces  of  onion,  leek,  lettuce,  endive,  parsley,  canteloupe,  squash, 
pumpkin  tomato,  turnip. 

Three  ounces  of  carrot,  cress,  celery,  chervil,  watermelon,  parsnip^ 
herbs. 

Four  ounces  of  cucumbers,  nasturtium,  rhubarb,  salsify,  scorzonera. 

Five  ounces  of  beet. 

Six  ounces  of  radish,  spinach. 

Eight  ounces  of  corn  salad. 

Twelve  ounces  of  okra,  asparagus. 

One  pint  of  field  corn. 

One  quart  of  sugar  corn. 

Three  quarts  of  bush  beans,  peas. 


QUERIES  AND   ANSWERS.  85 

511.  Q.  What  are  the  signs  for  planting  garden  ?  Planting 
A.  In  the  Northern  and  Middle  States  the  average  season  for  open-air  Signs  or 

seeding  may  be  indicated  by  the  blooming  of  well-known  trees  and  *'"**  *' 
shrubs,  though  seeding  may  be  made  with  profit  both  before  and  after 
such  periods,  as  it  is  a  safe  rule  in  gardening  to  divide  the  risks.  For  in- 
stance, when  the  peach  is  in  bloom  sow  those  seeds  which  will  germinate 
in  cold  soil,  resist  slight  frost,  as  peas,  spinach,  onion  and  leek.  When 
the  oak  bursts  its  leaf  buds  sow  beet,  carrot,  celery,  lettuce,  parsnip,  rad- 
ish, salsify,  turnip,  tomato.  When  the  blackberry  is  in  bloom  sow  those 
seeds  which  will  thrive  only  in  warmer  soil,  as  the  bean,  corn,  cucumber, 
canteloupe,  watermelon,  pumpkin,  squash,  okra. 

512.  Q.  How  much  time  must  I  give  my  seeds  to  sprout  before  deciding  Germination, 
to  break  up  the  land  and  sow  a  second  time?  Time 

A.  The  time  required  in  germination  greatly  varies,  dependent  upon  * 
the  species  of  plant,  the  age  of  the  seed  and  the  surrounding  conditions 
of  soil  and  atmosphere.  Under  favorable  circumstances,  peas,  beans  and 
corn  should  sprout  in  three  days ;  cabbage,  turnip  and  radish  in  four 
days  ;  vine  seeds,  such  as  melon,  squash  and  cucumber,  in  five  or  six 
days.  Germination,  however,  does  not  guarantee  vegetation,  as  seeds 
showing  a  germ  may  never  appear  above  ground  if  physically  weak,  if 
too  deeply  covered,  or  if  the  soil  is  hardened  by  rain  or  heat. 

513.  Q.  Which  is  the  greater  loss  to  the  garden,  unvital  seed  or  impure  Unvital  or 
gggfl  1  Impure  Seed. 

A.  If  seed  prove  unvital  a  new  purchase  can  be  made  and  a  new  plant- 
ing follow  within  a  few  days  ;  but  impure  seed  is  more  deceptive,  as  its 
very  vigor  secures  the  crop  attention  and  labor  to  be  subsequently  found 
wasted.  Of  the  two  evils,  unvital  seed  or  impure  seed,  the  first,  by  all 
odds,  is  the  least. 

514.  Q.  Must  I  thin  all  my  crops,  or  leave  some  just  as  they  sprouted ?  Tiiinnins 
A.  Do  not  hesitate  to  thin  out,  no  matter  how  sturdy  and  attractive  the    ^**P^' 

plants  may  be,  for  the  plant  which  crowds  another  is  simply  a  weed. 
This  thinning  should  be  done  before  the  plants  be  drawn  or  elongated  in 
their  stems  or  leaves,  or  they  will  ever  afterwards  show  the  injurious 
effects  of  crowding.  It  may  be  done  by  cutting  out  with  a  hoe  or  knife 
those  plants  which  are  not  needed  elsewhere,  or,  if  considered  worth 
transplanting,  they  should  be  carefully  dug  up,  that  the  finer  roots  be 
preserved.  No  vegetable  or  flower  will  properly  develop  if  crowded  ; 
certainly  one  symmetrical  plant  is  worth  a  dozen  sickly  ones,  not  only 
for  market  but  in  general  satisfaction. 

515.  Q.  Why  do  some  seed  merchants  commit  errors  in  filling  orders  Errors  by 
for  seed  ?  Seed 

A.  Because  their  employes  are  human.     When  seed  buyers  are  ready  ^®^**^*"*** 
to  pay  better  prices  for  seeds  perhaps  the  merchants  can  afibrd  to  employ 
angels  to  put  up  the  orders  ;  angels  may  be  infallible.    "To  err  is  human  ; 
to  forgive,  divine." 


QUERIES  AND  ANSWERS. 


Bermuda 

Grass. 


RntaBaga.         516.  Q.  Why  don't  I  have  better  success  with  ruta  baga  in  Georgia? 

A.  Because  you  sow  it  in  July — so  early  that  the  plants  get  necky, 
badly  shaped  and  tough.  In  Virginia  we  have  grown  healthy,  sweet  ruta 
bagas  sown  as  late  as  August  25th. 
Canteioupes.  517,  Q.  After  the  first  picking  of  our  crop  of  canteloupes,  which  maybe 
fair,  we  seldom  get  any  others  not  injured  by  the  worm.  Is  there  a 
remedy  ? 

A.  No  ;  no  remedy  that  is  satisfactory. 

518.  Q.  I  have  never  been  able  to  get  seed  of  the  Bermuda  grass  that 
will  germinate,  though  I  have  bought  it  from  the  most  reliable  seedsmen. 
Please  explain  the  cause  of  failure  to  germinate. 

A.  We  have  never  had  any  seed  that  would  germinate  over  ten  per 
cent.  It  cannot  be  saved  in  a  mature  stage,  as  it  drops  as  soon  as  ripe, 
and  must  therefore  be  cut  green,  hence  the  want  of  vitality.  Setting  out 
the  roots  is  the  only  royal  road  to  success  with  this  grass. 

519.  Q.  Is  there  such  a  variety  as  White  asparagus  ?  If  so,  is  it  any 
more  desirable  than  the  Green-top  or  Purple  ? 

A.  Yes  ;  there  is  a  variety,  of  fixed  habit,  producing  white  shoots.  It 
has  the  appearance  of  having  been  bleached  and,  consequently,  is  quite 
salable. 

530.  Q.  Are  large  canteloupes  as  sweet  as  small  ones  ? 

A.  Yes.  There  is  no  sweeter  melon  than  the  Large  Montreal,  which 
all  travelers  to  Canada  never  cease  to  dwell  upon.  The  sweetness  de- 
pends more  upon  soil,  long  hours  of  daylight,  atmospheric  conditions  and 
variety  than  upon  size. 

521.  Q.  What  causes  stiff-necked  onions? 
A.  If  the  entire  crop  is  stiff-necked  it  may  be  attributed  to  a  want  of 

such  fertilizer,  natural  or  artificial,  as  is  desirable  to  stimulate  quick  devel- 
opment of  crop,  or  it  may  be  imported  seed.  If  only  a  per  cent,  is  stiff- 
necked  it  may  be  attributed  to  thick  seeding,  or  to  a  mixed  lot  of  seed. 

522.  Q.  My  asparagus  bed  is  now  seven  years  old  and  gooci  as  ever ; 
how  long  may  I  expect  it  to  continue  productive  ? 

A.  If  the  bed  is  properly  plowed  and  cleaned,  and  top-fertilized  every 
autumn,  it  should  last  for  five  or  six  years  more.  Salt  at  the  rate  of  five 
bushels  to  the  acre  is  good  for  asparagus,  it  stimulates  the  asparagus,  a 
salt  plant,  and  retards  weeds. 

523.  Q.  How  many  times  will  wheat  start  and  stop,  and  start  and  stop, 
and  start  again  ? 

A.  Five  or  six  times — seemingly  a  provision  of  nature  to  fit  the  most 
important  cereal  for  growth  under  adverse  circumstances.  No  other 
seed  has  this  quality  to  so  notable  a  degree.  Oats,  rye  and  barley  possess 
it  to  a  less  extent. 

524.  Q.  How  can  I  distinguish  the  True  Top  onion  from  the  False  sort  ? 
A.  By  cutting  the  sets  transversely — that  is,  across  or  between  crown 

and  bottom.  If  the  True  Top  set,  only  one  heart  will  be  seen  ;  but  if  the 
False  set,  often  three  or  four  hearts  will  be  seen,  and  when  such  a  set  is 
planted  each  heart  makes  a  set. 


Asparagus. 


Canteloupes. 


Onions. 


Asparagus. 


Wbeat. 


Top  OnioB. 


QUERIES   AND  ANSWERS.  87 

525.  Q.  Is  it  true  that  melon  seeds  several  years  old  are  usually  more  oui  Melon 
productive  than  fresh  seed  ?  Seed. 

A.  It  is  true  ;  and  the  reason  is  that  fresh  seeds  have  often  so  much 
vigor  that  the  plants  produce  little  but  stems  and  leaves,  while  old 
seeds  of  less  vigor  put  out  many  blossoms  which  set  and  develop  fruit,  all 
borne  upon  short-jointed  vines. 

526.  Q.  Why  don't  cauliflower  flourish  equally  with  cabbage  ?  Cauliflower. 
A.  Because  cabbage  will  grow  in  any  locality  where  the  soil  is  good 

and  the  manuring  suflicient,  but  cauliflower  requires  particular  condi- 
tions, flourishing  best  in  a  humid  and  salt  atmosphere. 

527.  Q.  Is  there  any  vegetable  growth  which  appears  to  be  animal.        Fungus. 
A.  Yes  ;  several.     One  quite  common  in  some  gardens  is  that  fungus 

which  develops  the  club  root  in  cabbage,  turnip  and  carrot.  The  spores 
have  tail-like  appendages  which  by  vibration  move  along  over  wet  surfaces 
in  a  life-like  manner. 

528.  Q.  What  is  the  best  all-around  fertilizer  for  vegetables  ?  Stable 
A.  Well-rotted  stable  manure  from  corn-fed  and  well-kept  horses.  Manure. 

It  contains  all  the  ingredients  necessary  to  a  perfectly  satisfactory  growth. 

529.  Q.  Which  is  the  superior  for  cattle  feeding — beets,    carrots  or  Beets, 
turnips  ? 

A.  Turnips  are  the  least  nutritious,  but  the  quickest  and  cheapest  to 
produce.  Carrots  are  very  fattening,  but  are  expensive,  and  they  require 
much  attention.  Beets,  more  properly  Mangold,  are  the  most  bulky  pro- 
ducers, are  rich  in  sugar  and  are  easily  harvested  and  preserved.  They 
are  the  best  for  cattle  food. 

530.  Q.  Can  a  trucker  rely  upon  phosphates  to  develop  his  crops?  Phosphateo 
A.  Yes;  if  the  soil  contains  nitrates  and  potash  from  previous  manur- 

ings.  Most  commercial  superphosphates  contain  valuable  proportions  of 
nitrogen  and  often  some  potash.  Heavy  soils  should  have  stable  manure 
or  green  crops  plowed  under  to  lighten  them.  Commercial  fertilizers  do 
not  aerate  the  soil ;  under  their  continued  use  soils  become  very  hard. 

531.  Q.  Does  potash  help  in  growing  sweet  corn  ?  Potash. 
A.  Certainly.     Wood  ashes,  it  is  well  known  by  all  farmers,  has  been 

found  very  efiiective  as  a  fertilizer  to  corn  crops.  But  it  is  not  a  stimulant 
to  early  growth,  is  only  felt  very  late  in  the  season. 

532.  Q.  How  can  I  rid  my  land  of  white  grubs  ?  Grubs. 
A.  Apply  lime  and  salt,  and  plow  deeply  just  after  frost,  and  turn  the 

furrow  slices  upside  down  so  that  hard  frost  may  kill  the  pupa  of  all  in- 
sects awaiting  the  return  of  spring. 

533.  Q.  Why  do  wrinkled  varieties  of  peas  mildew  more  than  hard,  Pea  Mildew. 
round-seeded  sorts  ? 

A.  Mildew  is  a  cryptogamic  development  which  for  some  reason  occurs 
more  frequently  upon  broad-leaved  peas  than  on  those  of  smaller  foliage. 
Early  peas  hardening  their  foliage  early  do  not  afford  so  favorable  a  field 
for  the  spread  of  the  fungus. 


88  QUERIES   AND  ANSWERS, 

Cabbage  534.  Q.  What  is  the  best  remedy  against  cabbage  worms? 

Worms.  ^    gijl  ^|jg  g,.g^  brood  with  Paris  green,  applied  to  the  cabbage  before 

they  begin  to  head  up.     After  that  stop  the  Paris  green  and  use  hot  water 
and  kerosene  emulsion. 

Earthworm.     535.  Q    Does  the  angle  worm  injure  vegetables? 

A.  Not  to  any  extent.  It  does  more  good  than  harm,  as  it  works 
numerous  passages  through  the  soil,  facilitating  drainage,  admitting 
moisture  to  roots  of  plants  and  air  to  part  with  its  nitrogen. 

Cauliflower.  536.  Q.  Why  cannot  I  grow  cauliflower  in  central  Pennsylvania  as 
successfully  as  I  formerly  did  on  Cape  Cod? 

A.  Because  of  deficiency  of  humidity  in  the  air — particularly  because 
of  want  of  salt  in  the  atmosphere  and  partially  because  of  want  of  salt  in 
the  soil.  Cauliflower  is  of  the  cabbage  family — a  salt  water  plant — and 
seems  particularly  to  flourish  in  salt-air  districts.     Try  it  on  a  meadow. 

Hog  Manure.  537.  Q.  Why  does  hog  manure  cause  the  soil  of  gardens  to  produce 
wormy  vegetables  and  club  root  cabbage  ? 

A.  Because  the  rich  manure  attracts  flying  insects  to  deposit  their  eggs 
—the  grub  from  which  eat  anything  and  everything  green,  soft  and  juicy. 
The  same  over-rich  masses  of  manure  develop  fungous  growths,  and  club 
root  in  cabbage  is  a  result  of  fungus. 

Radishes.  538.  Q.  Why  is  it  that  some  soils  won't  grow  radishes  ? 

A.  Radishes  will  grow,  but  not  good  ones,  on  soils  affected  with  grubs, 
worms,  ants.  These  conditions  are  brought  about  by  the  use  of  pig 
manure  or  night  soil. 

Potatoes.  539.  Q.  Why  are  some  potatoes  soggy  while  others,  grown  same  season 

in  same  locality,  are  dry  and  mealy  ? 

A.  Some  varieties  of  potato  are  never  mealy  ;  and  sometimes  the 
choicest  sorts  are  soggy  on  account  of  unfavorable  soil  or  season. 

Periods  for         540.  Q.  In  making  repeated  sowings  during  Summer  and  Autumn  of 

Sowmg.  seeds  for  kitchen  garden,  how  late  can  I  continue  to  sow  ? 

A.  Firstly,  determine  the  average  dates  of  slight  frost  in  Autumn  and  of 
killing  frost.  Secondly,  divide  your  vegetables  into  the  two  classes  of 
those  which  will  at  once  succumb  under  first  frost  and  those  which  will 
recover  and  continue  growth  till  the  killing  frost.  Among  the  first  will 
be  vines,  beans,  egg-plants,  okro,  corn  ;  among  the  second,  lettuce,  spin- 
ach, kale,  turnip,  cabbage.  Thirdly,  observe  the  time  required  in  each 
instance  to  mature  for  table  use  and  plant  accordingly. 

Onion  541.  Q.  I  drilled  two  patches  with  your  Strasburg  Yellow  onion  seeds 

Germination,  for  sets,  sixty  pounds  to  the  acre.  One  quickly  developed  finely  formed 
sets  ;  the  other  dragged  along  and  finally  resulted  in  almost  a  complete 
failure.     Why  was  this? 

A.  This  often  happens,  and  is  a  consequence  of  conditions,  sometimes 
of  soil  and  atmosphere,  sometimes  of  period  of  sowing,  oftener  from 
insect  or  fungous  ravages. 

Rusty  Beans.  542.  Q.  Will  beans  saved  from  a  crop  of  rusted  beans  produce  in  their 
turn  a  crop  of  rusty  beans? 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS.  89 

A.  Quite  possible  if  the  season  is  a  damp  one.  A  preventive  is  to 
give  the  seed  a  bath  for  an  hour  or  two  in  Bordeaux  mixture  just  before 
planting. 

543.  Q.  What  is  the  right  time  to  remove  suckers  from  sugar  corn  ?         Com  Suckers 
A.  Just  before  coming  into  blossom,  if  you  must  do  it  ;  but  let  them 

alone  and  save  yourself  trouble.  The  sorts  which  sucker  most  are  the 
heaviest  yielders.  Suckers  do  not  reduce  the  crop  of  ears,  but  the  removal 
of  the  suckers  reduces  the  bulk  of  dry  forage. 

544.  Q.  How  many  bushels  of  marketable  onions  can  be  grown  to  the  Onions, 
acre? 

A.  Five  hundred  to  six  hundred  bushels  is  an  excellent  crop,  but  eight 
hundred  is  common  and  twice  that  number  have  been  reported. 

545.  Q.  Why  do  early  varieties  of  corn  smut  more  than  late  sorts  ?         Corn  Smut. 
A.  Because  they  have  less  vigor  of  constitution. 

546.  Q.  Is  Peruvian  guano  a  perfect  manure  ?  Guano. 
A.  That  depends  upon  its  grade.     When  of  first  quality  it  certainly  is 

an  eflFective  fertilizer,  but  is  more  a  stimulant  than  a  perfect  manure,  as  a 
thoroughly  efficient  manure  continues  to  supplement  itself  over  a  long 
period  ;  this  the  Peruvian  guano  does  not. 

547.  Q.  Should  an  asparagus  bed  be  allowed  to  go  to  seed  '?  Asparagus. 
A.  Yes ;  that  is  only  natural.     The  plants  if  not  permitted  to  develop 

bush  and  seed  would  be  unhealthy.  After  frost  kills  the  vines  cut  them  off. 

548.  Q.  What  makes  radishes  pithy  ?  Radish. 
A.  Generally  a  want  of  proper  nutrition  ;  on  fairly  rich  land,  where  the 

plants  grow  quickly,  the  roots  will  always  be  solid. 

549.  Q.  Why  is  it  that  cucumber  growers  who  ship  slicing  cucumbers  cucumbers 
prefer  the  White  Spine  ?  for 

A.  Because  the  White  Spine  is  a  good  producer  and  because  it  retains  Siwpping. 
its  green  color  during  the  period  of  shipment.      That  is  all,   and  it  is 
enough. 

550.  Q.  Can  the  watermelon  be  enlarged  in  size  by  hybridizing  it  with  ivatermelon. 
the  pumpkin  ? 

A.  Yes.  The  market  gardeners  of  New  Jersey  understood  this  years 
ago,  and  they  frequently  planted  a  few  Mammoth  pumpkins  in  their 
watermelon  patches  that  they  might  produce  seed  which  the  following 
year  would  produce  Mammoth  watermelons.  This,  however,  was  always 
done  at  the  expense  of  quality. 

551.  Q.  Will  squash  and  pumpkin  hybridize  ?  Hybridiza- 
A.  Yes  ;  but  only  occasionally  ;  not  nearly  so  freely  as  supposed  by  *»<"*• 

those  who  have  a  smattering  of  scientific  knowledge.  When  these  fami- 
lies do  hybridize  the  results  are  wild  or  unfixed  in  habit,  and  sometimes 
the  seed  from  such  hybrids  will  not  germinate.  Watermelons  will  mix 
very  occasionally  with  pumpkins  same  as  squash. 

552.  Q.  Is  agriculture  a  science  or  an  art  ?  Agriculture, 
A.  It  is  an  art,  aided  and  abetted  by  science  ;  chemistry,  mineralogy,  What  is  it? 

physiology,  botany  and  entomology  all  being  drawn  upon  to  demonstrate 
the  development  or  retardation  of  vegetable  species. 


90 


QUERIES  AND  ANSWERS. 


Scientific 
Agriculture 


Agricultural 
JDevelopment 


Botany.  553.  Q.  Is  botany  strictly  a  science  ? 

A.  In  general  terms  it  is,  but  not  altogether  an  exact  one,  as  much, 
must  be  taken  upon  the  evidence  of  others,  it  being  impossible  for  any 
one  man  or  any  body  of  men  to  have  seen  and  examined  all  of  the  one 
hundred  and  fifty  thousand  species  of  known  plants.  In  other  sciences 
the  observations  of  the  discoverer  can  be  confirmed,  but  not  always  so  in 
botany. 

554.  Q.  Is  agriculture  or  horticulture  a  study  presenting  much  diver- 
sity? 

A.  No  study,  taken  in  a  scientific  aspect,  covers  so  wide  a  field,  or  one 
the  limits  of  which  are  so  impossible  to  attain,  as  all  calculations  are  dis- 
turbed by  fluctuations  in  climatic  or  soil  conditions. 

555.  Q.  Will  the  agricultural  practice  of  the  future  be  an  improvement 
on  that  of  the  past  ? 

A.  Certainly  ;  for  the  intelligent  practice  of  agriculture  is  now  guided 
by  science,  and  in  the  future  it  will  be  ruled  by  it.  Unfortunately,  but  a 
small  proportion  of  agriculturists  will  possess  scientific  intelligence,  and 
consequently  the  practices  and  errors  of  the  past  will  be  continued  by  the 
great  majority.  There  will  be  three  classes  of  agriculturists :  the  alto- 
gether unscientific,  the  practical  cultivator  with  some  scientific  attain- 
ments, and  the  scientific  theorist  without  practical  experience  or  capacity 
for  making  things  pay.  The  agricultural  experimental  stations  have 
done  more  in  the  past  twenty  years  to  disseminate  scientific  knowledge  of 
the  action  of  fertilizers,  plant  diseases  and  cures,  injurious  insects  and 
methods  of  destroying  them,  than  any  agency  which  ever  existed.  Agri- 
culture is  becoming  scientific,  but  it  can  never  be  entirely  so,  as  no 
method  or  system  can  be  depended  upon  to  produce  a  fixed  result,  conse- 
quent upon  the  uncertain  efi'ect  of  meteorological  happenings.  No  art 
will  call  to  its  aid  to  interpret  it  so  many  scientific  branches  as  agricul- 
ture, but  all  that  will  never  make  it  a  perfect  science,  on  account  of  the 
unfixed  quantity  of  heat  and  cold,  rain  or  drought,  the  variations  of 
which  defeat  all  calculations. 

556.  Q.  Can  I  do  best  by  Autumn  planting  in  the  high  lands  of  Texas 
witli  onion  seed  or  sets  ? 

A.  Better  plant  sets,  twelve  bushels  to  the  acre,  in  rows  at  fifteen 
inches  apart.    Set  out  in  November,  they  should  mature  for  sale  in 
March.     Seed  drilled  in  October  vpould  probably  be  injured  by  frost. 
Drilled  Seed.      557.  Q.  Is  it  best  when  sowing  turnip  seed  to  put  it  in  with  a  seed  drill, 
in  rows,  or  to  broadcast  it  ? 

A.  It  is  quickest,  cheapest  and  simplest  to  broadcast  it,  but  a  better 
practice  is  to  drill  it,  as  drilled  seed  is  put  down  more  deeply  into  the  soil, 
and  is  therefore  able  to  resist  drought  under  conditions  when  broadcasted 
surface-sown  seed  would  dry  up  and  die. 

558.  Q.  Will  cabbage  plants  head  if  the  seed  is  sown  where  the  plants 
are  to  stand  ? 

A.  Yes,  a  portion  will  head  ;  sometimes  eighty  per  cent,  will  head.*  At 


Onion  Sets. 


Cabbage. 


QUERIES  AND   ANSWERS.  91 

other  times  not  over  twenty  per  cent.  Cabbages  to  head  properly  need  a 
check  in  their  continuity  of  growth,  that  is,  to  have  a  rest  as  it  were, 
when  all  growth  ceases  for  a  time,  as  is  the  case  when  they  are  taken  up 
from  a  seed  bed  and  transplanted  to  the  field.  To  attempt  to  grow  a  crop 
of  cabbage  with  the  idea  of  getting  heads  for  sale  or  use  without  trans- 
planting is  a  very  unsatisfactory  system.  It  is  a  lazy  man's  practice,  and 
he  who  pursues  it  gets  as  much  as  he  deserves  for  his  want  of  energy. 

559.  Q.  What  is  the  best  method  to  exterminate  those  noxious  weeds 
which  propagate  from  the  root? 

A.  The  Canada  thistle  is  the  worst  example  of  these.  The  above-sur-  weeds. 
face  part  to  the  ordinary  observer  appears  to  be  an  annual,  but  the  root 
is  perennial  and  extends  down  to  about  eight  inches,  and  then  horizontally 
branches  out  in  various  directions,  forming  on  its  horizontal  branches  buds 
which  send  up  to  the  surface  apparently  new  plants  the  next  year.  On 
small  areas  it  can  be  dug  out  or  killed  with  lime  or  salt,  but  upon  broad 
fields  the  most  efficient  system  to  destroy  it  is  by  constant  working  so  as 
to  cut  oflF  its  air  supply.  It  is  just  such  treatment  as  should  be  given  to 
all  weeds  having  persistent  underground  roots. 

560.  Q.  I  have  the  onion  maggot  every  year  in  my  onion  sets.     Can  I 
prevent  it? 

A.  Not  entirely,  as  the  insects  which  deposit  the  eggs  when  the  onion  Onlon 
seedlings  are  about  two  inches  high  are  then  flying  from  field  to  field.  Maggot. 
You  can,  however,  kill  off  a  portion  of  the  larvae  from  which  these  insects 
are  developed  by  burning  straw  or  trash  upon  your  proposed  onion  patch. 
To  do  it  efficiently  a  deep  mass  of  burning  material  will  have  to  be  used, 
or  only  those  larvae  that  lay  within  one  inch  of  the  surface  will  be 
scorched.  Another  way  to  kill  the  larvae  is  by  the  application  of  about 
400  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda  to  the  acre,  or  about  600  pounds  of  kainit. 
Onions  like  salt. 

561.  Q.  Is  there  any  rule  by  which  a  novice  can  distinguish  the  sex  of  Sexes  in 
garden  vegetables  ?    If  so,  please  give  it.  Vegetables. 

A.  Most  garden  vegetables  can  be  divided  sexually  into  three  classes  : 

1.  Those  in  which  the  sexes  occur  in  the  same  blossom,  as  in  the  cab- 
bage or  beet. 

2.  Those  in  which  the  sexes  occur  in  distinct  blossoms  on  the  same 
plant,  as  watermelon,  squash,  corn. 

3.  Those  in  which  the  sexes  occur  on  distinct  plants,  as  spinach. 
When  any  of  the  plants  are  in  bloom  a  very  little  study  by  an  observant 

and  intelligent  man  will  indicate  the  class  to  which  they  belong,  as  it  is 
very  easy,  as  a  rule,  to  distinguish  stamens,  the  male  organs,  from  pistils, 
the  female  organs. 

562.  Q.  What  is  the  value  of  millet  ?  MUlet. 
A.  The  three  or  four  distinct  types  of  millet  as  ordinarily  cultivated 

make  very  good  fodder  crops  for  feeding  green,  and  when  cut  before  the 
stalks  get  old  and  hard  make  good  hay.  Millet  can  be  mowed  for  hay 
sixty  to  seventy  days  from  sowing.    There  is  a  popular  objection  to 


92 


QUERIES   AND  ANSWERS. 


Tomato 
Fungus. 


Popcorn. 


Egg  Plants. 


Mustard. 


Corn 
Quality. 


millet  as  hay  on  account  of  the  belief  that  the  small,  hard,  dry  seeds  are 
swallowed  by  horses  without  mastication  and  cause  inflammation  of  the 
bowels,  but  millet  intended  for  hay  should  never  be  allowed  to  harden  its 
seed  before  cutting,  as  at  that  period  its  foliage  has  lost  much  of  its  value 
for  hay. 

563.  Q.  What  is  the  cause  of  the  black  spot  on  the  fruit  of  my  tomato 
plants  ? 

A.  Fungous  growth  which  develops  at  the  blossom  end  of  the  fruit, 
located  there  probably  because  the  skin  is  more  tender  there.  The  attack 
is  most  generally  in  wet  or  damp  seasons.  The  disease  once  established 
on  a  fruit  extends  its  area  of  surface  and  eats  deep  in  the  fruit,  soon  ren- 
dering it  worthless.  Bordeaux  mixture  is  efficient  at  first  to  prevent  or 
arrest  the  disease,  but  it  can  only  be  used  early  in  the  life  of  the  crop, 
and  as  a  precaution  against  the  disease,  for  being  a  poison  it  cannot  be 
used  on  plants  bearing  fruit  ready  for  consumption. 

564.  Q.  What  makes  popcorn  pop  ? 

A.  Take  a  grain  of  popcorn,  or  any  corn,  and  cut  it  down  through  the 
middle,  exposing  the  broad  surface  from  top  to  bottom,  and  there  will  be 
observed  at  the  small  end,  the  chit,  or  germinating  part,  and  surrounding 
it  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  and  extending  up  to  the  centre  of  the  grain, 
sometimes  to  the  top  will  be  observed  more  or  less  white  starchy  matter, 
and  on  both  sides  and  sometimes  above  it  a  deposit  of  oily  matter.  Now 
it  is  this  oily  matter  which  when  heated  explodes  and  turns  the  grain  in- 
side out.  Popcorn  in  proportion  to  its  size  develops  more  oily  matter 
than  ordinary  field  corn,  and  consequently  explodes  more  violently.  Any 
other  corn  with  as  much  oil  in  it  as  pop  would  do  as  well. 

565.  Q.  Last  year  my  egg  plants  were  borne  down  with  fruit,  but  this 
year  they  don't  average  two  fruit  to  a  bush.     How  is  this? 

A.  Most  likely  due  to  imperfect  pollination.  In  the  egg  plant  the  sexes 
are  both  found  in  the  same  flower,  but  sometimes  pollination  does  not 
occur  so  freely  as  at  others  due  to  conditions  of  rain-fall,  or  fog,  or  low 
temperature.  In  some  cases,  or  in  small  patches,  it  would  pay  to  pol- 
linize  by  hand,  which  work  can  be  done  quickly  with  the  point  of  a  knife. 

56'j.  Q.  Among  my  turnips  on  a  large  three-acre  field  there  appears  to 
be  ibout  twenty  per  cent,  of  mustard.  One  of  my  neighbors  says  it  is 
frjm  a  crop  which  went  to  seed  on  the  same  land  five  years  ago.  Can 
tais  be  so? 

A.  Certainly,  and  the  seed  may  continue  to  come  up  for  five  years  more. 
Mustard  being  very  retentive  in  vitality  many  seeds  plowed  down  six  and 
seven  inches  by  the  plow  will  not  sprout  in  years  till  brought  to  the  sur- 
face by  a  plowing  deep  enough  to  reach  them  and  expose  them  to  the  in- 
fluence of  the  atmosphere. 

567.  Q.  What  constitutes  a  good  type  of  corn  ? 

A.  Adaptability  to  location,  productiveness,  a  small  cob  to  dry  out 
quickly,  length  of  ear  resulting  in  diminished  labor  in  husking  and 
shelling,  depth  of  kernel,  and  closeness  of  packing  upon  the  grain,  sal- 
able color  and  weight. 


QUERIES  AND   ANSWERS.  93 

568.  Q.  Is  there  any  manurial  value  ia  leaf-rakings  from  woodlands?    l-eaf-rakings 
A.  Very  little  active  value,  though  it  is  the  basis  of  humus.     Ordina- 
rily it  is  hardly  worth  the  labor  of  hauling,  except  for  bedding  for  pigs 

in  pens,  or  in  a  barnyard.  Under  those  conditions  it  is  excellent  as  an 
absorbent. 

569.  Q.  Is  intense  cold  destructive  to  the  vitality  of  seeds?  Seed, 
A.  If  the  seeds  be  dry  and  well-covered  it  seldom  injuriously  aflFects  ^^^^^'^y* 

vitality.  Wheat  taken  by  a  North  Pole  exploring  expedition  as  far  north 
as  81°,  and  left  there  through  five  winters  where  the  temperature  for 
months  stood  at  50°  and  60°  degrees  below  zero,  germinated  freely  when 
brought  to  temperate  climates.  On  the  other  hand  few  seeds  will  stand 
for  any  time  a  heated  temperature  over  150°  F. 

570.  Q.  I  have  heard  of  big  crops  of  corn,  but  never  was  able  to  grow  Com  Crops. 
over  fifty  bushels  of  shelled  grain  to  the  acre,  and  would  like  to  know 

how  some  people  who  claim  to  have  grown  over  100  bushels  of  shelled 
grain  have  accomplished  it  ? 

A.  It  is  only  done  on  strong  ground,  yet  not  so  strong  as  to  throw  all 
the  energy  of  the  plant  into  making  leaf.  If  a  corn  field  is  planted  in 
hills  at  3^  X  3^  feet,  and  each  hill  has  four  stalks  producing  one  ear  to 
each  stalk  and  shelling  seven  ounces  to  the  ear,  the  yield  would  be  110 
bushels  to  the  acre.  Not  infrequently  a  hill  of  four  stalks  will  produce 
three  to  five  pounds  of  shelled  corn. 

571.  Q.  I  have  a  never-failing  stream  of  water  passing  through  my  Fish  Culture. 
farm  and  write  to  inquire  if  the  duties  of  farming  and  fish  culture  would 

conflict,  and  if  there  is  any  profit  in  fish  culture. 

A.  There  is  a  good  profit  in  fish  culture  to  those  who  understand  it,  but 
nine  out  of  ten  fail  to  realize  a  profit  for  a  want  of  the  knowledge  of  the 
requirements  to  insure  success.  Hundreds  of  New  England  farmers  have 
profitable  fish  ponds,  and  the  labor  of  caring  for  them  does  not  conflict 
with  their  agricultural  operations. 

572.  Q.  Why  are  some  perfectly  new  seeds  unvital  ?  Seed, 
A.  It  is  attributable  to  a  failure  of  pollination,  and  the  failure  to  polli-    *  *    ^* 

nize  may  be  due  to  want  of  a  vitality  on  the  part  of  either  the  male  or 
female  plant,  or  to  continued  rain  or  a  series  of  very  damp  heavy  days 
interfering  with  the  transfer  or  reception  of  the  pollen.  This  is  noticed 
more  particularly  with  the  seed  of  plants  in  which  the  sexes  are  found  in 
distinct  flowers,  or  distinct  plants  as  corn,  melons  and  spinach.  Nearly 
all  perfectly  new  seeds  contain  a  varying  percentage  of  such  unvital  seeds, 
generally  light,  small  and  stunted,  but  sometimes  as  plump  as  any. 

573.  Q.  Is  the  heading  of  cabbage  a  natural  habit  of  the  plant,  or  is  it  Cabbage. 
an  abnormal  condition  brought  about  by  cultivation. 

A.  Not  by  cultivation,  but  entirely  by  selection,  covering  hundreds  of 
years.  Heredity  in  the  cabbage  originally  was  in  the  line  of  development 
of  producing  a  mass  of  loose  spreading  leaves,  as  in  the  dandelion,  but  by 
the  selecting  of  those  plants  most  productive  in  leaves  and  most  dense,  a 
habit  was  finally  formed  which  became  in  time  a  heredity  more  torcible 


94 


QUERIES   AND  ANSWERS. 


Lettuce. 


Firming 
the  SoU. 


Pearl  Sets. 


Cabbage. 


Imported 

Cabbage 

Seed. 


than  the  previous  heredity  to  form  flat  open  centres.  This  new  habit  of 
forming  a  rosette-like  head  became  stronger  and  stronger  till  a  plant  was 
developed  in  which  the  heading  habit  was  its  chief  characteristic. 

574.  Q.  I  have  trouble  in  getting  a  good  head  of  lettuce.  Which  is  the 
best  way  to  sow  it,  and  how  deep  should  it  be  covered  ? 

A.  If  the  seed  is  good,  that  is  vital,  there  should  not  be  any  trouble  if 
it  be  properly  sown.  Of  course  if  the  seed  is  put  into  the  ground  and 
covered  deeply,  only  a  portion  will  ever  show  a  sprout  above  the  surface. 
It  should  never  be  put  into  the  earth,  only  put  on  to  it  and  slightly 
scratched  with  a  rake,  or  better  still,  patted  down  with  a  board,  or 
tramped  down  lightly  by  pressing  with  the  foot  every  square  inch  of  the 
bed  surface. 

575.  Q.  How  can  I  most  rapidly  compress  seed  sown  in  rows  after  hav- 
ing finished  drilling  it  in  the  field  ? 

A.  Roll  it  with  a  farm  roller,  or  wheel  a  wheelbarrow  with  a  broad  tire 
both  up  and  down  each  row  and  directly  upon  the  top  of  each  drill  mark. 
The  seed  so  compressed  will  sprout  first. 

576.  Q.  You  recommend  the  Bloomsdale  Extra  Early  Pearl  Sets  for 
Autumn  planting  in  the  South.  Will  you  advise  me  what  degree  of  frost 
they  will  stand.  Here  in  North  Carolina  we  sometimes  have  some  very 
severe  weather,  but  it  is  of  short  duration.  If  they  need  protection,  how 
can  I  protect  them  ? 

A.  They  will  stand  a  zero  temperature  without  injury  if  it  be  only  for 
a  few  hours,  and  if  they  be  well  rooted,  that  is,  if  they  have  taken  hold  of 
the  soil  before  their  growth  was  stopped.  We  have  many  times  had  them 
standing  out  all  Winter  on  Bloomsdale  when  the  temperature  often  went 
below  zero.  They  are  full  proof  against  20°  frost,  that  is  when  the  mer- 
cury falls  to  IQO  F.  They  can  be  protected  by  hay,  straw,  pine  shatters, 
but  all  this  kind  of  covering  affords  a  harbor  for  mice,  squirrel  and  other 
vermin  to  feed  upon  the  bulbs. 

577.  Q.  What  is  the  reason  I  have  so  much  trouble  in  growing  good 
cabbage.  I  get  the  very  best  seed  I  can  purchase,  and  make  my  seed  bed 
just  as  rich  ?in^  fertile  as  possible,  yet  the  plants  do  not  grow  or  head  well 
when  put  out  in  the  field  ? 

A.  Your  question,  perhaps,  answers  itself,  for  you  say  you  grow  your 
plants  on  a  rich  and  fertile  seed  bed,  and  that  is  wliere  the  difticulty 
probably  comes  in.  Plants  should  never  be  grown  on  a  richer  soil  than 
that  to  which  they  are  to  be  removed,  otherwise  they  at  once  upon  trans- 
plantation become  starved  and  in  ill  health.  Moved  from  a  poor  seed  bed 
to  a  field  richer  than  the  bed  they  at  once  become  invigorated  and  healthy. 

578.  Q.  I  have  been  using  cabbage  seed  which  I  have  imported  from 
Europe  for  several  years,  and  I  find  that  in  a  moist  season  I  can  grow 
fine  cabbage,  while  in  a  dry  season  they  are  a  total  failure.  What  is  the 
reason  ? 

A.  Because  the  strain  is  not  acclimated.  During  a  wet  season  the  con- 
ditions resemble  those  of  Europe,  but  when  an  American  dry  spell  sets  in 


QUERIES  AND  ANSWERS.  95 

the  plants  from  the  foreiga-grown  seed  at  once  meet  with  a  new  condition 
and  failure  results.  This  being  the  case,  and  no  one  knowing  what  the 
season  will  be,  it  is  injudicious  to  plant  foreign  seed,  as  a  loss  of  an  entire 
crop  may  result  with  its  expense  of  cultivation.  American  seed  from 
thoroughly  acclimated  stock  will  do  well  during  either  wet  or  dry  weather. 

579.  Q.  How  must  I  grow  cabbage  plants  to  keep  over  Winter  in  cold  Winter 
frame  ?  In  my  section  the  mercury  often  falls  to  zero.  Cabbage. 

A.  In  the  latitude  of  Philadelphia  where  the  mercury  often  falls  below 
zero  the  seed  is  broadcasted  in  the  open  ground  about  September  1,  and 
when  two  inches  in  height  transplanted  into  cold  frames,  that  they  may 
take  hold  of  the  earth  early  and  become  four  inches  high  before  hard  frost 
stops  their  growth.  In  the  cold  frames  the  plants  are  set  deeply  at  about 
one  inch  apart.  The  frames  are  covered  with  shutters  or  boards,  which 
are  removed  to  give  light  and  air  on  fine  days. 

580.  Q.  My  gardener  says  my  egg  plants  have  damped  off.     What  does  Egg  Plant 
that  imply  ?  Damp. 

A.  That  the  tissues  of  their  roots  or  stems  have  been  destroyed  by  a 
parasitic  plant,  the  growth  of  which  has  possibly  been  induced  by  repeated 
conditions  of  damp  soil  and  damp  air  and  not  enough  ventilation,  fol- 
lowed at  times  by  too  high  a  temperature.  There  are  a  number  of  species 
of  fungi  causing  a  similar  decay  of  young  seedlings  of  tomatoes,  peppers, 
cabbage  and  lettuce.  Some  confined  generally  to  under-glass  culture, 
others  occurring  in  the  open  field. 

581.  Q.  My  cabbage  are  infested  with  the  calico  bug.     What  remedy  Calico  Bug. 
can  I  take  to  drive  them  off? 

A.  They  won't  drive  ;  nothing  but  hand-picking  and  crushing  is  an 
effective  treatment.  The  writer  knows  it,  for  he  has  had  to  do  it  in  the 
course  of  many  years  with  thousands  of  acres  of  cabbage  and  turnip 
preyed  upon  by  this  bug.  The  insect  is  also  called  the  terrapin  bug  and 
the  harlequin  bug.  It  is  a  sap  sucker,  consequently  Paris  green  won't 
effect  it,  or  no  other  outward  poison.  Oil  or  emulsions  have  very  little 
influence  upon  it,  and  it  is  a  most  serious  pest. 

582.  Q.  What  is  that  disease  of  the  tomato  affecting  the  leaves  and  stem.  Tomato  Cnrl. 
causing  the  leaves  to  curl  and  finally  die? 

A.  There  are  several  diseases  causing  tomato  leaves  to  curl.  One  most 
general  is  termed  the  tomato  oedema,  caused,  it  is  thought,  by  an  excessive 
rain,  a  high  temperature  of  the  soil,  making  the  roots  active  in  pumping  j 

up  Avater  and  insufiicient  light  to  induce  free  transpiration,  the  result 
being  an  unequal  swelling  of  certain  parts  and  bursting  of  the  tissues,  and 
a  general  weakening  of  the  plant,  resulting  in  the  death  of  entire  branches. 

583.  Q.  Are  vegetables  grown  on  naturally  rich  soil  better  in  flavor  Flavor. 
than  those  grown  on  worn-out  soil  made  productive  by  the  application  of 
fertilizers  ? 

A.  Grown  on  rich  origin  soil  the  development  in  size  seems  to  be  at  the 
expense  of  fine  texture,  flavor  and  good-keeping  qualities,  while  grown 
on  well-used  soil,  the  development  is  less  rapid,  but  the  flavor  is  better. 


96 


QUERIES   AND  ANSWERS. 


Weeds. 


Winter 
Cabbage. 


Weevil. 


Bean 
Weevil. 


584.  Q.  Why  do  most  weeds  grow  faster  than  the  cultivated  plants  of 
a  garden  ? 

A.  Bad  stocks  of  all  created  life,  both  animal  and  vegetable,  seem  to  be 
endowed  with  special  reproductive  and  sustaining  powers.  The  common 
weeds  of  the  field  are  generally  annuals,  and,  sprouting  after  the  intended 
crop  is  put  in,  frequently  after  it  has  received  its  first  and  second  cultiva- 
tion, the  weeds  must  of  necessity  be  of  exceedingly  rapid  growth  to  ma- 
ture their  seed  by  the  time  the  regular  crop  is  ready  for  harvesting.  Few 
slow- growing  weeds  ever  arrive  at  a  stage  to  develop  vital  seeds,  but  the 
quick-growing  ones  do,  and  it  is  with  the  seeds  of  such  that  the  soil  is 
charged,  Weed  seeds  seem  to  have  greater  power  of  retention  of  germin- 
ating qualities  than  seeds  of  cultivated  plants.  It  is  those  of  very  strong 
germination  which  are  most  common.  Few  seeds  of  garden  vegetables 
will  sprout  when  but  quarter  of  the  age  of  the  seeds  of  common  weeds. 

585.  Q.  If  I  sow  my  cabbage  seed  in  September,  broadcast,  and  get 
them  three  inches  high  by  hard  frost,  can  I  protect  them  over  Winter  by 
covering  with  straw  ? 

A.  This  has  been  tried  frequently,  but  is  generally  a  failure  ;  the  straw 
is  pressed  down  by  snow  and  the  cabbage  rots  off.  Poles  placed  flat  on 
the  ground  throughout  the  cabbage  would  support  the  snow-covered 
straw  and  probably  be  found  of  advantage. 

586.  Q.  What  is  the  hardiest  cabbage  for  sowing  in  September  to  keep 
over  Winter  ? 

A.  Bloomsdale  Early  Dwarf  Flat  Dutch  is  the  hardiest.  It  is  a  flat 
header,  not  so  early  as  Jersey  Wakefield  by  three  weeks,  but  a  better  cold 
resister.  A  hardy  sort,  maturing  between  these  two,  is  the  Bloomsdale 
Large  York,  forming  a  head  similar  in  shape  to  the  Wakefield  but  twice 
as  large. 

587.  Q.  My  barn  is  full  of  wheat  weevil.     How  can  I  get  rid  of  them? 
A.  There  are  four  or  five  insects  which,  in  unscientific  language,  are 

referred  to  as  wheat  and  corn  weevil.  One  is  a  moth  and  exceedingly 
destructive  to  stored  grain,  the  caterpillar  of  which  is  white  and  about 
two-fifths  of  an  inch  in  length.  Two  other  grain  insects  are  small  red 
beetles,  but  of  distinct  species,  and  a  fourth  is  the  black  or  true  granary 
weevil,  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  long.  All  these  can  be  partially  de- 
stroyed by  subjecting  the  grain  to  the  fumes  of  carbon  bisulphide.  When 
the  mature  insects  are  found  harboring  in  the  cracks  and  crevices  of 
barns  they  can  be  destroyed  by  copious  soakings  with  kerosene  oil. 

588.  Q.  When  I  lived  in  Pennsylvania  I  grew  large  quantities  of  gro- 
cery beans,  but  cannot  down  here  in  Carolina  as  they  become  full  of  bugs. 
Is  there  any  remedy  ? 

A.  No ;  you  will  have  to  turn  to  other  crops.  The  mature  female 
insect  of  the  bean  weevil  deposits  her  eggs  in  a  slit  which  she  makes 
on  the  pods  when  the  bean  pods  are  very  small.  The  eggs  hatch  and  the 
grubs  strike  for  the  dark,  eating  their  way  through  the  pod  and  into  the 
soft  green  beans,  where  they  transform  to  winged  insects.     As  the  bean 


QUERIES  AND  ANSWERS.  97 

weevil  deposits  many  eggs  in  one  place,  many  beans  will  contain  six  or 
seven  grubs.     The  pea  weevil  only  deposits  one  egg  in  a  place. 

589.  Q.   What  is  implied  by  humidity  of  the  atmosphere  ?  Humidiiy. 
A.  The  air  will  take  up  and  hold  invisibly  a  certain  amount  of  moisture  ; 

a  greater  amount  will  appear  as  mist,  fog,  or  rain  and  fall  to  the  ground. 
The  full  amount  of  moisture  that  the  air  will  hold  in  perfect  suspension 
and  invisible  is,  for  scientific  purposes,  estimated  at  100,  half  that  quan- 
tity at  50.  When  the  humidity  is  reported  at  90  the  air  has  almost  ceased 
to  be  able  to  take  up  perspiration  from  the  human  body  ;  consequently 
the  atmosphere  is  very  oppressive,  even  though  the  temperature  may  not 
be  above  80°  F,  Instruments  to  indicate  humidity  can  be  bought  for  two 
or  three  dollars  and  are  instructive  and  useful,  same  as  tliermometers. 

590.  Q.  What  was  the  biggest  crop  of  corn  ever  grown  in  the  United  Com  Crop. 
States? 

A.  The  crop  of  1889  was  2,163,893,000  bushels.  The  estimated  crop  of 
1895  is  2,435,000,000  bushels,  from  83,000,000  acres. 

591.  Q.  Are  there  any  Bast  fibre  plants  native  to  the  Middle  States  Fibre  Plants. 
which  I  can  experiment  with  for  fibre? 

A.  Yes,  two  very  promising  ones. 

1.  The  Swamp  Rose  Mallow,  a  perennial  naturally  growing  in  swamps 
and  producing  straight  stems  to  a  height  of  six  feet,  but  growing  just  as 
well  on  upland.     Its  fibre  is  a  substitute  for  jute. 

2.  The  Abutilon  or  Butter  plant,  an  annual  found  in  nearly  all  corn- 
fields and  growing,  in  ninety  days,  to  a  height  of  four  to  five  feet.  It 
produces  a  fibre  strong,  white,  glossy,  and  a  good  substitute  for  jute.  It 
can  be  grown  wherever  Indian  corn  can  be  grown. 

593.  Q.  How  much  Orchard  grass  seed  is  grown  annually  ?  Orchard 

A.  About  three  million  pounds,  nearly  half  of  which  is  sent  to  Europe.  <5rass. 

The  production  ranges  from  five  to  fifteen  bushels  of  fourteen  pounds  to 

the  acre.     It  is  mostly  grown  in  Kentucky  and  Virginia. 

593.  Q.  What  is  the  difference  between  Spring  and  Winter  wheat?         Wheat. 

A.  Spring  wheat,  an  annual,  is  an  abnormal  form  developed  by  selec- 
tion and  climatic  conditions  from  Winter  wheat.  All  wheat,  in  early 
times,  was  of  the  biennial  habit.  In  extremely  cold  sections  of  country 
Winter  wheat  often  kills  out,  and  in  such  parts  Spring  wheat  is  cultivated 

to  advantage. 

594.  Q.  Is  a  bearded  or  beardless  wheat  the  best  ?  Wheat. 
A.  Opinions  vary  upon  this  subject.     A  bearded  wheat  bends  over  and 

breaks  down  sooner  than  a  bald  wheat,  as  it  holds  a  greater  weight  of 
rain.  On  the  other  hand  it  is  more  self-protective  against  the  ravages  of 
birds. 

595.  Q.  In  shipping  beans  to  the  Northern  markets  I  frequently  receive  Bean  Kust. 
reports  that  they  have  arrived  badly  spotted  or  rusted  and  therefore  un- 
salable, though  I  know  they  were  perfectly  free  from  spots  when  they 

were  packed.    Can  you  explain  this? 
A.  Probably  due  to  the  natural  moisture  of  the  pods  when  packed. 


98 


QUERIES  AXD   ANSWERS. 


Red  Color 
Mystical. 


Forest 
Growth. 


Celery 
BUght. 


Celery  in 
the  South. 


Ergot. 


Fertilizing. 


Moon's 
Influence. 


which  developed  heat  and  greatly  extended  the  growth  of  some  fungous 
disease  already  on  the  pods.  This  result  can  be  partially  avoided  by  dry- 
ing and  airing  the  pods  under  cover  in  a  cool  place,  as  on  tables  in  a 
shed.  No  vegetable  should  be  shipped  direct  from  the  field  until  it  is 
cooled  off, 

596.  Q.  "Why  do  country  horsemen  and  stable  boys  tie  up  the  tails  of 
their  horses  with  red  cloth  ? 

A.  It  is  an  old  tradition  that  red  is  the  proper  thing  to  use,  the  color 
being  a  mystical  safeguard  against  evil  spirits.  They  don't  do  it  for  this 
purpose,  but  simply  because  it  is  the  practice. 

597.  Q.  Does  soft  wood— as  pine — or  hard  wood — as  oak  and  chestnut — 
indicate  the  agricultural  qualities  of  land  ? 

A.  Not  always  ;  for  many  sections  of  country,  without  any  change  in 
soil,  naturally  develop  both,  hard  and  soft  forests  following  each  other. 
Two  hundred  years  ago  the  State  of  Delaware  was  covered  with  hard 
woods,  and  no  oak  was  superior  then,  or  is  now,  to  the  oak  of  Delaware  ; 
but  large  sections  where  oak  was  cut  off,  pines  followed,  and  the  soil  is 
the  same  now  as  then. 

598.  Q.  What  causes  the  blight  in  celery  ? 

A.  It  is  caused  by  a  parasitic  fungus.  A  preventive  sometimes  used 
before  the  celery  crop  is  planted  is  kainit.  This  should  be  applied  not 
only  to  the  field  but  to  the  seed  bed. 

599.  Q.  Why  cannot  I  grow  celery  at  Savannah  as  successfully  as  I 
formerly  did  at  Easton,  Pa.? 

A.  You  can,  provided  your  soil  and  location  is  of  the  proper  kind,  as 
celery  is  successfully  grown  as  far  South  as  Tampa,  Fla.  As  for  the  soil, 
it  should  be  rich  and  mucky  ;  as  for  the  location,  it  should  be  upon  land 
where  a  constant  understrata  of  water  is  near  the  surface.  Celery  is  a 
bog  plant,  and  should  do  in  many  locations  on  rice  plantations,  and  so 
should  cauliflower.  It  would  be  found  advantageous  to  shade  celery  by 
alternate  rows  of  corn  or  sunflower. 

600.  Q.  What  is  ergot  on  rye  ? 

A.  A  fungus  attacking  the  grain  when  quite  young,  producing  a  horny 
growth  of  disagreeable  odor  and  quite  poisonous.  When  ergoted  grain  is 
used  for  making  meal  it  always  develops  sickness  and  sometimes  produces 
convulsions,  gangrene,  and  often  death. 

601.  Q.  Can  vegetables  be  fertilized  through  their  foliage? 

A.  Not  in  the  open  garden,  but  to  a  small  extent  in  glass  houses,  by 
making  an  artificial  atmosphere  charged  slightly  with  carbonate  of  am- 
monia. 

602.  Q.  I  want  to  put  a  new  shingle  roof  upon  my  barn  and  my  country 
carpenter  tells  me  I  should  only  do  it  during  the  decline  of  the  moon.  Is 
there  any  force  in  this  ? 

A.  The  proper  time  to  shingle  a  roof,  to  plant  seed,  or  to  kill  pork  is 
just  when  you  are  ready.  All  these  old-fashioned  ideas  about  the  influence 
of  the  moon  are  exploded,  except  in  the  opinions  of  a  few  old-fashioned 


QUERIES  AND   ANSWERS.  99 

country  people.  These  believe,  as  their  ancestors  did,  that  shingles  put 
upon  a  roof  in  the  decline  of  the  moon  would  hold  down  and  lay  flat,  but 
laid  on  the  increase  of  the  moon  would  rise  up  and  curl.  Some  years  ago 
a  Commissioner  of  Agriculture,  in  oflice  at  Washington,  told  the  writer 
that  he  believed  in  all  signs  as  regulating  farm  operations  ;  that  he  always 
killed  beef  and  pork  and  planted  seeds  during  the  proper  phases  of  the 
moon,  and  that  even  a  worm  fence  put  up  during  the  decline  of  the  moon 
would  stand  twice  as  long  as  one  set  during  the  increase. 

603.  Q.  I  have  some  seeds  of  a  very  choice  watermelon,  saved  twenty  Watermelon 
years  ago.     Will  they  sprout  ?  Seed  vitauty. 

A.  Keep  a  portion  of  them  in  a  weak  solution  of  chlorine,  another  por- 
tion in  a  solution  of  oxalic  acid,  and  sow  both  in  a  well-prepared  seed 
bed,  kept  damp,  but  not  wet.  A  remaining  portion  fold  in  a  woolen  cloth 
saturated  with  oxalic  acid,  and  keep  warm  near  a  stove.  If  any  germs 
appear  put  the  seed  at  once  into  earth. 

604.  Q.  My  canteloupe  vines  bearing  nearly  full-sized  fruits  are  drying  Canteioupe 
up.     What  is  the  cause  ?  Diseases. 

A.  If  the  drying  is  in  spots  it  may  be  from  a  fungous  attack,  but  if  it  is 
all  over  the  patch  and  affects  all  parts  of  the  vine  it  is  either  due  to  defec- 
tive nutrition  or  to  drought.  Canteloupes  should  be  deeply  plowed  when 
last  worked ;  at  that  time  the  plow  is  the  proper  implement,  the  cultivator 
is  little  good,  as  the  soil  should  be  deeply  moved  and  plenty  of  it  thrown 
up  to  the  roots  before  laying  the  crop  aside. 

605.  Q.  Can  I  successfully  grow  garden  peas  on  the  same  land  for  Peas, 
several  years  consecutively  ? 

A.  Yes,  if  the  land  be  well  fertilized  with  potash,  phosphoric  acid  and 
nitrogen.  It  will,  however,  be  best  to  rotate  all  crops,  each  requiring  a 
difference  in  soil  foods,  some  a  radical  difference,  others  only  a  slight 
difference,  all  taking  some,  some  more,  some  less,  of  each  food  con- 
stituent. 

606.  Q.  Are  turnips  for  stock  food  better  than  mangels,  beets  or  carrots?  Turnips. 
A.  Turnips  are  not  so  nutritious,  nor  so  long-keeping  as  beets  or 

carrots,  but  can  be  grown  at  half  the  expense  of  labor,  and  requiring  only 
a  little  over  one-half  the  time  from  sowing  to  full  development. 

607.  Q.  What  is  the  onion  smut  ?  Onion  Smut. 
A.  A  fungus,  very  minute,  and  consisting  of  small  filaments  or  threads 

formed  within  the  folds  of  the  onion  leaves.  This  fungus  when  quite  de- 
veloped bursts  the  leaves  longitudinally,  exhibiting  long  lines  of  black 
dust,  which  are  spores  set  forth  to  further  extend  the  disease.  Once 
located  upon  a  field  the  only  way  to  get  rid  of  it  is  to  cease  raising  onions 
on  that  field.  It  is  contagious ;  healthy  parts  of  the  field  being  inoculated 
by  the  smut  carried  on  tools  used  in  working  the  affected  parts. 

608.  Q.  Which  is  the  most  money-producing  agricultural  State  of  the  Richest 

Union  ?  Agricultural 

A.  New  Jersey,  which  State,  considering  its  acreage  under  cultivation,  ®***** 
produces  more  dollars'  worth  to  the  acre  than  any  other  State.     This  is  a 


100 


QUERIES  AND  ANSWERS. 


Spring 
Greens. 


Transplant- 


Air  Plants. 


Moisture 
Absorbed. 


Cold  Frame. 


Phylloxera. 


consequence  of  its  general  level  surface,  and  its  intermediate  location 
between  the  great  consuming  cities  of  Philadelphia  and  New  York,  and 
its  influx  of  Summer  visitors  along  its  Atlantic  coast,  all  requiring  the 
best  of  all  vegetables  and  in  immense  quantities. 

609.  Q.  What  plants  besides  Seven  Top  and  Dixie  turnip  will  do  well 
in  Alabama  for  early  Spring  greens  ? 

A.  Cabbaging  dandelion.  Long  French  sorrel,  chickory  and  Southern 
Snow  White  turnips. 

610.  Q.  What  sorts  of  vegetables  should  be  transplanted  to  stimulate 
their  more  perfect  development  ? 

A,  The  transplanting  of  vegetables  cannot  be  practiced  so  generally  and 
so  systematically  in  the  United  States  as  in  the  moist  countries  of  France, 
Germany  and  England.  In  those  countries  nearly  everything  can  be 
transplanted  successfully  and  to  advantage. 

As  a  rule  it  is  advantageous  to  transplant  lettuce,  cabbage,  kale,  cauli- 
flower, celery,  tomatoes,  egg  plants  and  peppers. 

611.  Q.  What  are  air  plants? 

A.  An  order  generally  found  growing  upon  the  trunks  and  branches  of 
trees. 

Air  plants  do  not  draw  any  nourishment  from  the  trees,  consequently 
they  grow  equally  well  on  dead  ones  as  on  live  ones,  drawing  all  the 
nourishment  from  the  air.  Familiar  examples  are  found  in  the  very 
ornamental  hothouse  orchids,  and  in  the  long  moss  of  southern  forests. 

612.  Q.  Do  plants  absorb  moisture  through  their  leaves  ? 

A.  No,  not  to  any  appreciable  extent.  They  are  great  exhalers  of 
moisture  when  the  condition  of  the  atmosphere  will  admit  it.  When  the 
air  is  full  of  humidity  or  rain  the  exhalation  from  the  leaves  is  arrested 
and  the  leaf  cells  become  very  much  distended  by  moisture,  puffing  up  the 
tissues,  upon  which  appearance  some  people  think  the  leaves  have  taken 
in  moisture  from  the  air. 

613.  Q.  What  is  a  cold  frame  ? 

A.  A  box  of  any  size  or  shape  set  down  upon  a  suitable  bed  of  natural 
soil.  The  box  sometimes  covered  with  a  window  sash  or  other  glass 
frame,  sometimes  only  with  a  shutter  or  loose  boards.  A  glass  frame 
adds  to  the  warmth  of  the  soil  beneath,  a  shutter  or  boards  protects  the 
soil  and  the  contents  of  the  box  from  injurious  effects  of  rain,  cold,  or 
snow. 

In  ordinary  practice  a  frame  is  made  of  sixteen-foot  boards  placed 
parallel  and  about  six  feet  apart,  the  ends  closed  with  other  boards. 

A  cold  frame  is  so  called  because  it  is  not  a  hot  one,  there  being  no 
manure  beneath  to  develop  what  is  called  bottom  heat. 

614.  Q.  On  what  kind  of  soil  is  the  phylloxera  least  destructive  to  the 
grapevine  ? 

A.  On  sandy  soils,  as  such  soils  hold  less  air  and  more  water,  which  is 
prejudicial  to  the  rapid  increase  and  development  of  the  insect.  Sandy 
soils  asphyxiates  them. 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS.  101 

615.  Q.  Why  are  American  grape  vines  so  largely  planted  in  European  American 
vineyards,  and  why  are  European  sorts  so  seldom  planted  in  America.        Grape. 

A.  The  roots  of  American  varieties  have  greater  resistent  powers 
against  the  phylloxera.  The  sorts  used  are  selections  from  the  cestivalis, 
riparia,  labrusca,  and  some  few  are  from  the  wild  forms  of  liupestris  cordi- 
folia,  cinerea,  Berlandieri.  European  sorts  having  very  little  resistent 
power  are  not  much  used  in  this  country,  as  they  soon  become  unhealthy 
and  die. 

616.  Q.  On  my  farm  are  two  distinct  qualities  of  soil,  one  section  being  Influence 
loam,  the  other  sand,  and  curious  to  understand,  the  plants  in  the  sand  **'  Sand. 
resist  drought  the  best.     Why  is  this  ? 

A.  On  a  sandy  soil  water  either  derived  from  above  as  rain,  or  from 
beneath  by  the  action  of  the  sun,  lodges  in  the  interstices  between  the 
grains  of  sand  and  forces  the  air  out,  and  in  this  way  a  sandy  soil  may 
hold  a  large  amount  of  water. 

617.  Q.  What  is  the  grape  insect  known  as  phylloxera  ?  PhyUoxera 
A.  It  originally  came  from  the  Mississippi  Valley,  and  was  discovered      ^^^' 

about  1854.  Between  1870  and  1880  a  large  portion  of  the  vineyards  of 
France  and  Spain  was  destroyed  by  it,  and  subsequently  the  vineyards  of 
all  Europe  were  seriously  affected.  It  is  believed  the  insect  was  taken  to 
Europe  attached  to  roots  of  American  vines. 

Up  to  1884  over  two  million  acres  of  vineyards  had  been  destroyed  in 
France,  and  one  million  more  injuriously  affected.  A  loss  estimated  at 
$140,000,000.  The  mature  insect  hatches  out  upon  the  young  roots  of  the 
grape  in  June,  and  works  its  way  through  the  earth  to  the  surface  to  fly 
away  and  extend  its  species. 

Lighting  upon  young  grape  leaves,  it  deposits  its  eggs,  which  form  leaf 
galls.  The  grubs  hatched  in  these  galls  immediately  lay  other  eggs, 
sometimes  two  or  three  hundred,  the  larvss  from  which  drop  to  the  earth 
and,  penetrating  it,  are  ready  in  the  Spring  to  aflix  themselves  to  the 
roots.  These  larvae  form  nodules  on  the  rootlets,  and  deposit  about 
one  hundred  eggs,  to  hatch  out  and  recommence  in  June  the  round  of 
transformations  just  described.  The  most  eflicient  remedy  is  to  saturate 
the  soil  about  the  vines  with  the  fumes  of  bisulphide  of  carbon,  about 
three  hundred  pounds  to  the  acre.  This  is  done  by  pumps  with  small 
penetrating  tubes  to  be  forced  down  among  the  roots.  Flooding  or  sub- 
mersion to  a  depth  of  twelve  inches  for  a  period  of  ten  days  is  beneficial 
in  October  or  May. 

618.  Q.  What  is  corn  smut  ?  Corn  Smnt. 
A.  A  minute  parasitic  plant,  seldom  seen  till  after  some  weeks  of  growth 

within  the  close  envelope  of  the  ear,  when  it  bursts  out  in  a  black  mass. 
There  is  no  remedy  to  arrest  its  growth  while  saving  the  ear.  Possibly 
soaking  the  seed  corn  in  blue  vitrol  might  be  a  preventive. 

619.  Q.  Is  there  any  fertilizing  value  in  green  oats  or  rye  plowed  under?  oreen 

A.  Yes,  to  an  extent ;  but  not  so  much  as  derived  from  crimson  clover  Manuring. 
or  cow  peas.     There  is  no  object  in  raising  rye  or  oats  to  plow  under. 


102 


QUERIES  AND   ANSWERS. 


Tomato 
Shipping. 


Mole  Plant. 


Cross-bred 
Plant. 


Sun  House. 


Asparagus. 


Potato 
Cultivation. 


except  that  the  two  crops  can  be  grown  so  much  more  quickly  than  clover 
or  peas. 

620.  Q.  I  frequently  have  received  reports  from  my  commission  mer- 
chant in  St.  Louis  that  the  tomatoes  I  have  sent  him,  and  which  I  know 
were  perfect  when  I  shipped  them,  arrived  in  a  decaying  condition.  Can 
you  give  me  any  reason  for  this  ? 

A.  Tomatoes  which  are  picked  during  tlie  heat  of  the  day  and  packed 
without  being  allowed  to  cool  thoroughly  are  almost  certain  to  spoil  in  a 
day  or  so.  It  is  just  so  with  beans,  and  in  fact  with  all  vegetables.  They 
all  should  be  cooled  oflf.  Your  commission  merchant  may  be  right  and 
you  may  only  have  yourself  to  blame. 

621.  Q.  What  is  a  mule  plant  ? 

A.  A  progeny  from  the  fertilization  of  the  pistil  or  female  organ  of  one 
species  of  plant  by  the  pollen  from  them  ale  organ  of  a  distinct  species 
of  plant.  Two  species  of  the  same  genus  may  be  thus  mixed,  but  it  is 
uncommon  for  them  to  produce  seed.  They  are  most  generally  sterile, 
but  not  always,  for  among  garden  vegetables  the  cucumber  and  the  melon 
have  been  crossed  and  the  seed  has  been  fertile. 

622.  Q.  What  is  a  cross-bred  plant  ? 

A.  A  plant  raised  from  seed  the  product  of  a  variety  of  some  plant  of 
one  species  the  pistil  of  which  has  been  fertilized  by  pollen  from  a  flower 
of  another  plant  of  the  same  species.  As,  for  example,  a  red  tomato 
crossed  with  a  yellow  tomato. 

623.  Q.  What  is  a  sun  house? 

A.  A  structure  on  the  same  principle  as  a  glass-covered  cold  frame,  only 
larger.  It  is  like  a  greenhouse  without  artificial  heat,  depending  alto- 
gether on  sun  heat  derived  during  the  day  and  which  it  partially  holds 
during  the  night.  In  early  Spring  and  late  Autumn  it  protects  growing 
plants  from  frost,  beating  rains,  and  snow.  Such  houses  are  found  profit- 
able to  market  gardeners. 

624.  Q.  Is  asparagus  best  when  cut  under  the  surface  and  white,  or 
when  allowed  to  rise  above  the  surface  and  become  all  green  ? 

A.  Simply  a  matter  of  taste.  Cut  above  the  surface,  three  times  as 
many  bunches  can  be  cut  from  a  bed  as  when  cut  beneath  the  surface. 
The  cutting  underground  destroys  many  shoots  not  in  sight.  For  can- 
ners'  use  it  must  be  cut  under  the  surface,  as  when  it  gets  green  it  be- 
comes too  soft  to  stand  the  processes  of  canning. 

625.  Q.  I  have  looked  in  vain  through  your  catalogue  to  find  out  how 
far  apart  I  should  plant  potatoes.  I  suppose  every  farmer  knows  all 
about  it,  but  I  am  not  a  farmer.     I  want  to  raise  about  ten  bushels. 

A.  If  an  acre  of  potatoes  averages  150  bushels,  then  one-fifteenth  of  an 
acre  would  be  required  to  produce  ten  bushels.  Now  a  fifteenth  is  about 
325  square  yards,  which  is,  say,  forty  yards  long  by  eight  yards  wide. 
For  a  small  plot  like  this  plow  the  land,  harrow,  and  open  trenches  five 
inches  deep  and  two  and  one-half  feet  apart.  Place  the  potato  cuttings 
about  eight  inches  apart  and  cover  with  three  inches  of  soil.    The  culti- 


QUERIES  AND   ANSWERS.  103 

rating  and  the  rain  will,  after  a  time,  wash  down  the  whole  thing  to  a 
level.  Previous  to  plowing,  the  land  should  be  top-dressed  with  a  full 
cartload  of  well -rotted  stable  manure,  or  treated  with  forty  pounds  good 
commercial  fertilizer. 

626.  Q.  I  find  Ivy  on  the  walls  of  a  farmhouse  I  just  purchased.     Will  ivy. 
it  keep  the  walls  damp  ? 

A.  It  will  keep  them  dry,  as  the  leaves  overlap  each  other  like  shingles 
80  that  not  a  drop  of  rain  can  strike  the  walls. 

627.  Q.  Are  king  crabs  good  manure?  King  Crab 
A.  Excellent ;  tens  of  thousands  of  bushels  are  used  by  farmers  on  the  Manure. 

South  Atlantic  waters.  Their  value,  however,  is  only  for  one  crop,  as 
their  fertilizing  influence  is  very  volatile. 

628.  Q.  What  is  the  difference  between  germination  and  vegetation  ?      Germination. 
A.  Germination  is  the  putting  forth  of  a  germ  or  sprout  and  the  sus- 
taining of  it  till  the  young  plant  makes  connection  with  the  ground  ; 

there  germination  ends  and  vegetation  commences. 

629.  Q.  Has  moonlight  any  influence  upon  garden  vegetables  ?  MoonUght. 
A.  No.     Some  plants  of  a  very  sensitive  nature,  as  the  Sensitive  plant, 

awaken  under  moonlight,  but  no  practical  result  has  ever  been  noted. 

630.  Q.  Is  there  much  diversity  between  vegetable  garden  products  in  European 
Europe  and  the  United  States  ?  Vegetables. 

A.  Quite  marked.  •  In  Europe  the  gardeners  grow  lots  of  things  little 
cultivated  here.  For  example,  artichoke,  cardoon,  corn  salad,  chickory, 
cress,  dandelion,  swiss  chard,  scorzonera,  sea  kale,  sorrel. 

631.  Q.  What  size  cold  frame  must  I  have  to  hold  twelve  thousand  Cold  Frame, 
cabbage  plants  over  Winter  ? 

A.  A  frame  made  of  boards  sixteen  feet  long,  and  placed  parallel  at  six 
feet  distant,  the  ends  being  closed,  will  hold  three  thousand  cabbage 
plants. 

632.  Q.  Why  do  garden  vegetables  degenerate  ?  Degenera- 
A.  Because  of  careless  selection.     Esculents  propagated  from  seed  can  *^**'** 

be  brought  up  to  their  previously  highest  quality  if  time  be  taken.  They 
do  not  run  out  in  the  same  manner  as  do  some  tree  fruits  propagated  by 
grafts  or  buds,  or  the  potato  as  propagated  from  the  tubers,  the  eyes  of 
which  are  really  buds. 

633.  Q.  Do  plants  perspire  ?  Perspiration 
A.  They  do  to  a  very  large  extent.   It  has  been  proven  that  a  Sunflower  of  Plants. 

plant  six  feet  high  perspired  in  a  day  ten  times  as  much  as  man. 

634.  Q.  Why  do  some  professional  gardeners  always  want  to  buy  old  Cucumber 
seeds  of  cucumber,  melon  and  squash  ?  Seed. 

A.  Running  plants  from  old  seeds  do  not  grow  so  vigorously  as  from 
new  seeds.  They  are  shorter  jointed,  while  producing  as  many  blossoms 
as  long-jointed  vines.  They  are  also  earlier  in  maturing  and,  being  com- 
pact in  growth,  a  greater  number  of  hills  can  be  planted  to  the  acre. 

635.  What  influence  has  the  qualities  of  parents  upon  the  progeny  of  influence 
cross-bred  plants  ?  of  Parents. 


104 


QUERIES   AND  ANSWERS. 


Peas. 


Green  Moss. 


£xtra  ISarly 
Pea. 


Table  Com. 


■Watering 
Plants. 


Plant  Dis- 
crimination. 


Potato  Bug. 


Sorghum. 


Licorice. 


Hotbeds. 


A.  It  is  theorized  that  the  male  gives  quality  to  the  interior  organism, 
the  female  to  the  external. 

636.  Q.  At  what  stage  of  development  should  table  peas  be  picked 
from  the  vine  to  obtain  them  in  the  most  palatable  condition  ? 

A.  When  about  two-thirds  developed,  as  then  they  are  tender,  luscious 
and  altogether  superior  to  qualities  possessed  when  full  grown. 

637.  Q.  How  can  I  get  rid  of  the  green  moss  which  grows  in  my  lawn, 
especially  in  shady  places  ? 

A.  Try  three  plans  :  top  dress  with  salt,  top  dress  with  lime,  spray  the 
moss  with  Bordeaux  mixture. 

638.  Q.  What  is  the  dividing  line  on  Extra  Early  pea  and  a  later  class? 
A.  An  Extra  Early  pea  should  arrive  at  picking  condition  at  forty-two 

to  forty-six  days  from  germination.     Any  sort,  whatever  the  name,  later 
than  that  is  not  an  Extra  Early. 

639.  Q.  How  should  corn  be  eaten  ? 

A.  Score  the  rows  with  a  knife  from  end  to  end  of  the  cob,  and  with  a 
fork  scrape  down  and  off  the  edible  portion,  getting  nothing  but  the  soft 
interior,  the  shells  of  the  grains  being  left  behind. 

640.  Q.  Is  watering  garden  vegetables  in  dry  weather  beneficial? 

A.  Sometimes,  but  often  harmful.  It  is  best  done  at  night.  If  done 
during  the  day  it  excites  the  roots  to  action,  the  plants  pumping  up  water 
and  the  leaves  exhaling  it  to  the  dry  atmosphere. 

When  the  supply  of  water  stops  the  roots  and  leaves  are  left  in  a  state 
of  collapse,  sometimes  worse  than  before. 

641.  Q.  How  is  it  that  plants  requiring  distinct  foods  and  producing 
widely  different  fruits  or  juices  live  upon  the  same  soil  ? 

A.  Partly  because  plants  possess  a  power  of  food  selection.  The  wheat 
plant  for  instance  will  absorb  silex,  and  the  pea  growing  alongside  of  it 
will  not  absorb  any, 

643.  Q.  The  leaves  from  the  stems  of  my  potato  crop  have  been  all 
eaten  off  by  the  potato  bug,  but  the  tubers  appear  to  be  full  size.  Would 
the  tubers  have  been  larger  if  the  leaves  had  not  been  destroyed  ? 

A.  Certainly  ;  larger  and  more  perfectly  finished  in  development.  Any 
condition  unnatural  is  always  a  check  to  perfect  growth  and  full  maturity. 

643.  Q.  Which  are  the  best  varieties  of  sorghum  for  sugar  making  ? 
A.  The  Collier,  Coleman,  McLean  and  Folger.     The  last-named  is  the 

earliest  maturing  variety  and  the  best  all  round  in  sugar-making  quali- 
ties.    The  Collier  is  the  hardiest  and  best  for  Northern  latitudes. 

644.  Q.  Can  I  grow  licorice  root  in  Georgia  ? 

A.  Yes  ;  on  low-lands  it  will  grow  freely.  The  dried  roots  in  bales  are 
worth  $40  a  ton.  The  annual  consumption  in  the  United  States  is  35,000,- 
000  pounds  of  the  extract,  largely  used  in  confectionery  and  in  tobacco. 

645.  Q.  Should  the  soil  used  in  hotbeds  be  changed  frequently? 

A.  Yes  ;  every  year  get  new  soil  from  a  field  known  to  be  free  from 
any  disease.  The  old  soil  may  be  infested  with  parasites  which  may  re- 
main alive  for  many  months,  even  though  the  earth  may  be  frozen 


QUERIES  AND   ANSWERS.  105 

hard  as  iron  during  Winter.  In  the  open  garden  old  seed  beds  arc  often 
nurseries  of  disease. 

646.  Q.  In  growing  onions  here  in  Florida  for  the  Northern  market  I  Onions. 
have  found  difficulty  in  the  fact  they  sometimes  grow  so  large  before  the 

tops  die  down  that  they  are  not  readily  salable.  Is  there  any  "way  that  I 
can  cause  the  tops  to  die  off  when  they  are  at  the  most  desirable  size  ? 

A.  Two  courses  are  open  to  the  experimenter  :  one  to  cut  under  the 
roots  with  a  flat  hoe  or  wide,  flat  plowshare,  to  arrest  too  great  vitality  ; 
the  other  to  break  down  the  tops,  pressing  them  flat  with  the  hand  or 
with  some  instrument  wrapped  in  cloth  or  bagging,  so  as  to  be  soft. 

647.  Q.  What  is  a  parasitic  plant  ?  Parasitic 
A.  An  order  of  plant  which  strikes  roots  into  the  substance  of  other  ^i****^. 

plantsandfeedson  their  juices.  Molds  and  blights  are  examples  of  lowest 
organization  of  vegetable  parasites.  The  mistletoe  is  of  a  higher  order, 
forming  large  bunches  often  several  feet  in  diameter. 

648.  Q.  What  is  the  cause  of  hollow  stem  in  celery  ?  Celery. 

A.  A  bad  stock.  Years  ago,  before  the  selection  of  quality  was  so  in- 
tense as  now,  a  considerable  percentage  of  every  patch  was  always  hol- 
low, but  now  seldom  3  per  cent,  in  the  good  varieties  is  found  hollow. 

But  some  Italian  celeries  are  entirely  hollow. 

649.  Q.  Which  is  the  best  method  for  a  market  gardener  to  follow:  Sell-  Selling 
ing  his  products  through  a  commission  merchant  or  direct  sales  to  con-  vegetables. 
sumers  ? 

A.  If  he  is  a  large  operator  it  would  be  impossible  for  him  to  sell  to  the 
consumers.  A  small  operator  can  of  course  get  better  prices  by  taking  to 
himself  the  profits  of  the  middle  men. 

650.  Q.  What  are  cryptogamic  germs  ?  Cryptogamic 
A.  The  reproductive  organs  of  flowerless  plants.     Some  such  plants  Germs. 

become  trees,  but  those  injurious  to  cultivated  garden  vegetables  are 
always  microscopic  in  size  and  are  known  as  garden  fungi.  They  have 
neither  leaves  nor  stems,  their  reproductive  organs  are  situated  in  a  mass 
of  cellular  substance. 

651.  Q.  What  sorts  of  vegetables  best  resist  drought?  Drought. 
A.  Drought-sustaining  vegetables  might  be  divided  into  two  classes : 

first,  those  which  develop  deep  roots,  as  carrots  and  parsnips,  which  are 
able  to  draw  moisture  from  considerable  depth,  and  secondly,  those  of 
thick,  succulent  leaves.  An  example  of  how  thick-leaved  plants  can 
sustain  drought  while  only  surface-rooted  is  seen  in  the  ordinary  house 
leek  and  in  common  sand  cactus. 

652.  Q.  Will  a  crop  of  potatoes  take  more  fertility  out  of  a  field  than  a  Soil 

crop  of  tomatoes  ?  Kxhaustion. 

A.  Yes  ;  potatoes  may  average  200  bushels  to  the  acre  of  solid,  starchy 
tubers,  while  the  tomatoes,  if  they  do  average  400  bushels,  are  95  per 
cent,  water. 

653.  Q.  How  long  will  fungus  germs  remain  in  the  soil  after  a  dis-  Fungus 
eased  crop  has  been  removed  ?  Germs. 


106 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS. 


Fungi. 


Cabbage. 


Sunbam. 


Beet. 


Onion. 


Web  Worm. 


French 
Artichoke. 


A.  After  the  crop  is  removed  the  fungus  germs  nearly  always  find 
weeds  and  plants  of  some  other  kind  on  the  same  land  to  feed  upon,  to 
perpetuate  their  species  over  the  balance  of  the  growing  season,  and 
through  most  Winters  the  germs  will  lie  dormant,  ready  to  attach  them- 
selves to  some  plant  the  next  Spring. 

654.  Q.  "What  are  fungi? 

A.  A  very  low  order  of  vegetation,  a  flowerless  order,  illustrated  in 
our  vegetable  gardens  by  the  mushroom  and  propagated  by  minute, 
spreading  fronds. 

655.  Q.  If  after  I  have  set  out  my  cabbage  plants  and  they  have  rooted 
and  commenced  to  grow,  there  comes  a  spell  of  cold  weather  which, 
although  not  enough  to  wilt  the  leaves,  checks  the  growth  for  a  period  of 
several  days,  what  would  probably  be  the  efiect  on  their  heading? 

A.  The  check  of  transplanting  young  cabbage  plants  from  the  seed 
bed  to  the  field  seems  to  induce  an  inclination  to  form  heads,  but  after  the 
transplanted  cabbages  are  well  established  any  subsequent  check  from 
frost  or  severe  drought  seems  to  induce  a  disposition  to  go  to  seed.  That 
inclination  once  established,  the  plants  commence  to  show  all  sorts  of  vari- 
ability of  shape  and  character,  sometimes  not  over  half  of  the  crop  mak- 
ing good  heads. 

656.  Q.  Can  I  use  any  preventive  against  sunburn  of  my  water- 
melons ? 

A.  When  the  vines  are  about  half  grown  broadcast  buckwheat,  which 
by  time  the  melons  are  ripe  will  protect  them  partially  from  the  sun. 

657.  Q.  Where  did  the  beet  originate,  or  from  whence  did  the  first  beet 
come? 

A.  It  is  a  native  of  sandy  seacoasts  of  the  Mediterranean,  Black  and 
Caspian  seas. 

658.  Q.  Is  the  origin  of  the  onion  known  ? 

A.  It  is  not ;  but  it  certainly  is  one  of  the  earliest  of  cultivated  plants — 
well  known  to  the  Egyptians. 

659.  Q.  What  shall  I  do  to  drive  off  an  insect  which  is  destroying  ray 
beets  and  mangels  by  eating  the  leaves  and  spinning  a  web  on  the  top  of 
the  wreck  ? 

A.  The  description  would  mark  it  as  one  of  the  web-worms,  of  which 
there  are  several.  They  do  not  confine  themselves  to  beets,  but  will  take 
anything  in  the  way  of  garden  truck.  To  kill  them,  spray  with  a  solu- 
tion of  Paris  green,  one  pound  of  tlie  poison  to  150  gallons  of  water,  and 
three  gallons  of  molasses  to  make  it  stick  to  the  leaves. 

660.  Q.  Why  is  not  the  artichoke  cultivated  as  generally  in  the  United 
States  as  in  France  ? 

A.  Because  our  Winters  are  too  severe,  except  in  the  cotton  States,  and 
because  we  are  accustomed  to  better  food.  The  artichoke  is  really  of  so 
little  merit  that  it  is  not  received  with  favor  by  Americans,  even  in  local- 
ities where  it  can  be  successfully  grown.  The  artichoke  plant  is  a  form 
of  cardoon,  which  latter  plant  is  cultivated  for  its  bleached  foot  stalks 


QUERIES  AND   ANSWERS.  107 

and  midriba  The  cardoon  does  not  produce  edible  heads,  it  being  bred 
for  its  edible  leaves,  the  artichoke  for  its  edible  flowers. 

661.  Q.  There  is  a  demand  in  my  market  for  a  Box  radish  of  a  deep  red  Radish, 
color.   Is  there  such  a  radish,  with  a  sliort  top  and  of  quick  growth,  which 

I  can  use  for  the  purpose  ?  I  want  them  to  bunch  with  my  White  Box 
radish,  and  they  must  be  of  similar  shape. 

A.  Landreths'  Earliest  is  the  one  to  use.  It  unites  two  marked  quali- 
ties :  First,  an  earliness  in  maturity  for  table,  surpassing  any  other  red 
sort ;  secondly,  a  rich  depth  of  claret  or  ruby  color,  unapproached  by  any 
other  variety.  In  form  it  is  turnip-shaped,  in  size  and  form  similar  to  the 
Early  Scarlet.  The  leaves,  very  short  and  small,  fit  it  for  forcing  in  glass 
house  or  frame,  while  its  early  maturity  will  astonish  the  cultivator. 

662.  Q.  Can  I  improve  my  tomatoes  by  pruning  the  vines?    If  so,  at i''"o»^i»s 
■what  stage  of  growth  should  the  pruning  be  done?  °"^^  **®^* 

A.  Pruning  must  be  done  with  judgment,  else  the  blooms  will  be  cut 
oflf  in  too  large  numbers.  Pruning,  when  well  done,  is  advantageous,  as 
it  lets  air  and  light  into  the  vines,  which  otherwise  might  become  a  tangle 
in  which  no  fruit  could  ripen. 

663.  Q.  Is  marl  of  much  value  as  a  fertilizer  ?  Marl. 
A.  That  depends  on  the  kind  of  marl.     The  best  marl  is  Jersey  green 

sand  marl,  by  the  use  of  which  large  districts  in  Jersey  have  been  raised 
from  poverty  to  affluence.  On  lands  which  fifty  years  ago  not  over 
twenty  bushels  of  corn  could  be  produced,  the  average  crops  now  are 
fifty  bushels.  All  kinds  of  shell  fish  deposits  are  called  marl,  but  there 
is  a  great  difference  in  value  of  various  deposits. 

664.  Q.  What  is  the  manurial  effect  of  large  turnips  plowed  under,  Tornips 
bulbs  and  leaves  all  turned  down  out  of  sight?  ** Manure. 

A.  Very  valuable ;  and  a  very  quick  and  a  very  cheap  means  of  enriching 
a  field.  The  seed  sown  broadcast  in  August  will  develop  a  big  crop  by 
Ist  November,  ready  for  plowing  down  before  the  land  is  frozen.  It  is 
a  system  which  should  be  largely  practiced,  as  it  is  an  elficient  way 
of  manuring  the  land  and  done  at  a  season  when  there  is  little  to  do  on  a 
farm. 

665.  Q.  What  particular  merit  is  there  in  a  strap-leaf  turnip  ?    What  strap-leaf 
does  strap-leaf  mean  as  applied  to  turnip  ?  Turnips. 

A.  It  means  a  leaf  without  indentures — a  straight  leaf  like  a  rabbit's 
ear.  There  is  no  special  merit  in  it — it  simply  indicates  that  the  stock  is 
a  pedigree  one.  If  it  was  not  watched  and  culled  it  would  soon  cease  to 
be  a  strap-leaf— would  become  a  cut-leaf. 

666.  Q.  Are  the  seeds  of  garden  vegetables,  when  in  eating  condition,  Maturity  of 
sufllciently  matured  for  sowing  ?  Seeds. 

A.  Those  of  watermelons,  cantaloupes,  pumpkins  ;  hardly  of  any- 
thing else. 

667.  Q.  What  is  the  best  pea  to  plant  for  a  late  crop,  say  in  August  ?  Peas. 
I  have  tried  several  sorts,  but  they  always  mildew. 

A.  Landreths'  Extra  Early  is  best,  as  it  is  the  least  subject  to  mildew 


108 


QUERIES  AND   ANSWERS. 


Sugar  Cane. 


Clover. 


Tomatoes. 


at  the  season  indicated,  when  nearly  all  other  peas  become  so  covered 
with  the  mildew  as  to  be  of  little  value. 

668.  Q.  From  what  country  did  the  original  sugar  cane  come  ? 
A.  From  Southern  Asia,  India,  Cochin- China,  and  Malaysia,  whence 

it  spread  into  Africa,  and  thence  to  America,  reaching  St.  Domingo  in 
1530  and  shortly  afterwards  Mexico  and  Brazil. 

669.  Q.  Where  did  the  Crimson  clover  originally  come  from  ? 
A.  It  is  found  wild  in  Northern  Italy,  in  Sardinia,  and  in  Algiers,  ia 

the  valley  of  the  Danube  and  in  Macedonia. 

670.  Q.  I  have  very  poor  success  in  growing  tomatoes  in  my  garden. 
The  soil  is  good  and  rich,  and  I  can  grow  very  large  plants,  but  they  do 
not  bear  much  fruit,  and  it  is  generally  small  and  knotty,  no  matter  what 
variety  I  plant.     Can  you  explain  the  cause  and  remedy  ? 

A.  Possibly  the  plants  go  too  much  to  leaf.  Try  pruning  the  roots  by 
digging  about  them  deeply;  this  will  reduce  the  vigor  of  growth  and  per- 
haps cause  blossoms  to  appear  and  set.  Also  trim  the  foliage  to  let  in  the 
light  and  air. 

671.  Q.  How  many  brands  of  commercial  fertilizers  are  there? 
A.  Probably  600  or  700  distinctly  named  sorts,  all  diflfering  from  each 

other  in  the  proportion  of  contents  of  available  plant  food,  some  brands 
worth  ten  times  the  value  of  others,  some  not  worth  five  dollars  a  ton. 

672.  Q.  Is  kainlt  more  valuable  than  common  salt? 
A.  Yes ;  because  it  contains  from  15  to  20  per  cent,  of  potash,  while 

common  salt  does  not  contain  any.  Potash  Is  a  fertilizer  or  plant  food — 
salt  is  not  a  food,  only  an  alterative  and  insect  driver.  The  kainit  cou- 
talns  60  to  70  per  cent,  of  common  salt  in  addition  to  the  potash. 

673.  Q.  Of  what  country  is  the  sweet  potato  a  native  ? 
A.  Not  known  positively,  but  presumed  of  Mexico  or  the  West  Indies, 

as  it  was  cultivated  in  San  Domingo  in  1526.  It  differs  from  the  white 
potato  in  its  tubers  being  roots,  while  in  the  white  potato  the  tubers  are 
branches. 

674.  Q.  Where  did  the  garden  pea  originate  ? 
A.   Probably  in  Asia,  from  the  Caucasus  to  Persia.     It   has   been 

found  among  the  remains  of  the  lake-dwellers  of  the  bronze  age  in  Switz- 
erland. 

675.  Q.  Which  is  the  most  nutritious  for  milch  cows,  green  sugar  corn 
or  green  sorghum  ? 

A.  Sorghum  by  all  odds,  as  it  contains  from  8  to  12  per  cent,  of  sugar. 
Winter  Oats.      676.  Q.  Can  I  successfully  grow  Virginia  Winter  oats  In  Pennsylvania  ? 

A.  Yos,  if  it  be  treated  as  a  Spring  oat,  as  the  Winters  are  too  severe 
in  Pennsylvania  to  admit  it  to  live  as  in  Virginia.  Sown  in  early  Spring 
it  will  ripen  three  weeks  later  than  ordinary  Spring  oats.  It  will  be  found 
far  more  productive  than  Spring  oats  and  far  heavier  to  the  bushel,  fre- 
quently going  up  to  thirty-eight  and  forty  pounds.  As  long  back  as  1869  it 
was  grown  as  a  Spring  crop  on  Bloomsdale  Farm,  giving  seventy  bushels 
to  the  acre. 


Fertilizers. 


Kainit. 


Sweet 
Potato. 


Pea. 


Cow  Feed. 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS.  109 

677.  Q.  Why  is  it  that  two  tomato  patches,  both  grown  from  the  same  Tomat«*9. 
seed,  develop  fruit  so  distinct? 

A.  Frequently  the  case  when  the  periods  of  sowing  the  seed  or  setting 
out  the  plants  have  been  wide  apart ;  the  conditions  of  growth  being 
very  diflFerent,  to  say  nothing  of  a  possible  difference  in  soil. 

678.  Q.  How  many  days  does  it  take  from  germination  for  a  good  type  Sorghum, 
of  sorghum  to  reach  as  high  as  11  per  cent,  of  sugar? 

A.  About  140  days,  and  about  145  days  to  reach  70  per  cent,  of  purity. 

679.  Q.  Is  there  any  difference  in  period  of  maturity  in  a  crop  of  corn,  Com. 
one-third  part  of  each  grown  respectively  from  grains  taken  from  the 
butt,  middle  and  end  of  ear? 

A.  No,  not  the  first  year ;  but  the  practice  continued  would  result  in  a 
marked  variability  in  forms  of  grains  and  value. 

680.  Q.  Comparing  the  two  systems  of  agricultural  operations — that  of  Market 
ordinary  farming,  as  the  raising  of  grain,  potatoes,  hay,  cattle  and  dairy-  Gardening. 
ing,  with  truck  farming,  as  in  the  raising  of  vegetables  for  market — which 

aflfords  the  greatest  possibilities  of  profit,  and  which  opens  to  the  highly 
educated  operator  the  widest  field  for  action  and  intelligent,  if  not  scien- 
tific application  ? 

A.  The  laborious  eflfbrts  of  the  farmer  producing  wheat  and  other  small 
grains,  corn,  potatoes,  hay  and  dairy  products,  cannot  be  exceeded  by 
the  labors  of  any  soil  cultivator,  but  the  mental  details  of  such  labors  are 
insignificant  compared  with  the  operations  of  truck  farming  on  a  large  area, 
as  on  the  large  vegetable  farms  near  some  of  our  large  cities.  On  such 
farms  the  ceaseless  round  of  Spring,  Midsummer  and  Winter  crops  of  vege- 
tables from  the  fields,  and  others  from  cold  frames,  hotbeds  and  hot-houses ; 
the  packing,  shipping,  correspondence;  the  details  of  appropriate  fertilizers 
and  special  mechanical  appliances ;  a  large  pay  roll  to  be  provided  for  every 
Saturday  night,  necessitates  great  responsibilities  and  demands  technical 
and  business  qualifications  such  as  are  not  looked  for  in  the  ordinary 
farmer.  The  operations  of  the  two  are  so  wide  apart  as  not  to  be  considered 
the  same  moment.  One  is  humdrum,  the  other  unceasing  activity  and  de- 
manding, if  success  is  to  be  attained,  qualities  not  required  in  a  grain  farmer, 
though  his  wheat  fields  may  be  ten  times  as  big  as  the  vegetable  farm. 
No  man  wishing  to  turn  to  an  agricultural  pursuit  is  too  intelligent  or  too 
scientific  to  adopt  that  of  vegetable  farming  ;  for  it  is  the  most  intense,  the 
most  interesting,  the  most  technical,  the  most  paying  of  all  soil  cultural 
operations.  It  is  also  the  most  uncertain,  but  this  adds  to  the  possibilities 
of  profit  as  well  as  loss. 

681.  Q.  In  what  part  of  the  world  was  the  garden  bean  first  cultivated  ?  Bean. 
A.  In  Western  Asia.     It  was  cultivated  at  Rome  nearly  two  thousand 

years  ago.  It  appears  to  have  existed  also  in  South  America  long  before 
the  Western  Continent  was  known. 

682.  Q.  Whence  came  the  first  cucumbers  ?  Cucumber. 
A.  Not  positively  known,  but  thought  to  be  from  Cabal,  in  Northwest 

India.    It  has  been  cultivated  in  India  for  three  thousand  years. 


no 


QUERIES   AND  ANSWERS. 


Cantaloupes. 

liettuce. 

Spinacb. 

■Watermelon, 
Turnip. 


Cabbage 
Worm. 


Uma  Beans. 


Puddling. 


Liiquid 
Manure. 


Weeds. 


683.  Q.  Cantaloupes,  where  did  they  originally  come  from  ? 

A.  It  is  believed  they  first  came  from  Africa,  but  possibly  they  were 
natives  of  Asia  as  well.  The  Romans  cultivated  the  cantaloupe  and  illus- 
trated it  in  pictures  now  existing.  The  writer  has  obtained  some  very 
choice  new  sorts  through  the  missionaries  of  Armenia. 

684.  Q.  Where  did  lettuce  originally  come  from  ? 

A.  The  wild  form  still  grows  in  the  Canary  Islands,  Madeira,  Algeria, 
and  in  Asia.     The  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans  cultivated  it. 

685.  Q.  Where  did  spinach  originate? 

A.  It  was  first  cultivated  in  Western  Asia.  The  seed  originally  was  all 
prickly,  the  smooth-seeded  being  a  perpetuation  of  a  sport. 

686.  Q.  What  is  the  native  country  of  the  watermelon  ? 

A.  Central  Africa.     Livingstone  saw  large  districts  covered  with  it. 

687.  Q.  My  Spring-sown  turnips  are  stringy.  What  is  the  cause  ?  I  use 
the  Red  Top  Globe.     Is  there  any  better  sort  for  Spring  sowing? 

A.  Yes  ;  Early  Flat  Dutch,  but  it  must  be  used  when  small,  not  bigger 
than  a  50=cent  piece,  otherwise  it  is  certain  to  get  tough,  fibrous  and  hot. 

688.  Q.  Will  hot  water  kill  the  cabbage  caterpillars  without  injuring 
the  plants  ? 

A.  Hot  water  above  160°  will  scald  the  plants,  but  below  that  will  not 
hurt  them.  At  any  temperature  below  160°  and  above  140^  the  worms 
will  be  destroyed.     It  is  an  efficient  remedy  for  use  in  small  patches. 

689.  Q.  I  have  experienced  great  difficulty  in  getting  a  stand  of  Lima 
beans,  particularly  in  cold,  wet  seasons.  Can  I  overcome  this  difficulty 
by  soaking  the  beans  in  lard  or  any  other  moisture-resisting  solution  ? 

A.  You  probably  plant  too  early.  The  Lima  will  not  sprout  in  cold, 
wet  soil,  as  it  requires  very  favorable  conditions  as  respects  moderate 
moisture  and  warmed  earth.  Later  plantings,  when  the  soil  is  in  favor- 
able condition,  will  overtake  early  plantings  and  the  vines  be  more 
healthy.  If  you  must  be  early,  start  them  under  glass  or  in  the  house, 
and  transplant  when  four  inches  high. 

690.  Q.  When  transplanting  cabbage  and  tomatoes  is  it  necessary  to 
puddle  the  roots  ? 

A.  Not  desirable  unless  they  are  to  be  shipped  some  distance.  If  to  be 
planted  at  home,  puddling  is  a  mistake,  as  the  mud  cements  around  the 
roots  and  arrests  their  free  action  in  the  soil.  Transplant  only  just  before 
a  rain  or  just  after,  and  tightly  fasten  the  plant  in  the  soil. 

691.  Q.  Do  you  advise  liquid  manure  for  application  to  garden  vege- 
tables ? 

A.  Yes ;  applied  between  the  plants,  not  on  top  of  them,  or  it  might 
scald.  Only  apply  in  the  evening,  as  water  excites  the  plants  to  action — 
the  roots  to  absorbing  and  pumping  up  and  the  leaves  to  evaporation. 
This  during  the  middle  of  a  hot  day  is  injurious,  but  at  night  is  beneficial. 

692.  Q.  How  can  I  keep  my  paths  free  of  grass  and  weeds? 

A.  Lime  and  salt  will  hold  them  in  check,  but  not  prevent  them 
entirely. 


QUERIES  AND   ANSWERS.  Ill 

693.  Q.  Will  burning  straw  on  the  surface  of  ray  garden  kill  weed  Weed  Seeds, 
seeds  and  insects  ? 

A.  Only  partially ;  as  no  heat  which  a  surface-burning  would  make 
would  heat  the  soil  over  two  inches  in  depth.  A  deep  plowing  or  digging 
will  bring  to  the  surface  seeds  and  insects  not  injured  by  the  heat. 

694.  Q.  When  should  I  manure  ray  lawn  ?  i-awn 
A.  Better  spread  stable  manure  in  January,  twenty-five  cartloads  to  the  ^^aJ^i^re. 

acre,  and  rake  off  the  remnant  in  March.  Or,  in  February  or  March, 
broadcast  to  the  acre  800  to  1000  pounds  of  superphosphate  of  lime  and 
200  to  300  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda. 

695.  Q.  What  are  the  cheapest  and  quickest  green  crops  I  can  grow  in  Green  Crops. 
Delaware  after  September  1,  to  remain  on  the  ground  all  Winter  as  a 

covering  and  to  be  plowed  down  in  March? 

A.  Rye,  living  all  Winter  and  forming  a  mat  of  roots  and  strong  top 
growth.  Indian  corn,  making  a  strong  top  growth  by  frost  and  then 
drying  up — a  good  covering  to  the  soil,  preventing  blowing.  In  Dela- 
ware, September  1  is  too  late  to  sow  Scarlet  clover  to  do  any  good  by 
March,  and  late  also  for  Cow  peas  whicli,  w^hen  left  to  dry  on  the  field, 
are  very  hard  to  plow  under  in  Spring  on  account  of  the  vines  being  like 
so  many  wires. 

696.  Q.  Will  it  pay  financially  to  suspend  an  electric  light  over  a  vege-  Electric 
table  forcing  house  to  hasten  the  development  of  market  vegetables?  ^    * 

A.  Not  in  all  cases ;  for  while  some  plants  are  benefited,  others  are 
retarded.  The  vegetable  most  advanced  by  electric  light  is  lettuce, 
which,  it  is  estimated,  is  forced  ahead  quite  a  week  by  the  use  of  electric 
light. 

697.  Q.  Why  do  people  in  hot  Southern  climates,  as  the  West  and  East  Pungent 
Indies,  Mexico  and  Brazil,  consume  so  many  hot  vegetables,  as  peppers.  Vegetables. 
leeks,  and  Spanish  radishes? 

A.  As  tonics  to  the  system.  In  such  countries  the  liver  becomes  torpid, 
the  stomach  weak,  and  foods  flavored  with  peppers  and  other  burning 
ingredients  tone  up  the  system  to  resist  the  evil  effect  of  the  climate. 

698.  Q.  How  is  the  percentage  of  sugar  in  vegetables  influenced  by  Sugar  in 
locations  of  latitude  ?  Vegetables. 

A.  All  vegetable  garden  products,  as  peas,  beans,  corn,  parsnip,  carrot, 
beets  and  melons,  become  more  palatable  as  their  cultivation  approaches 
more  nearly  the  northern  limit  of  their  successful  growing.  This  may  be 
attributed  to  the  longer  daylight  in  Summer  of  Northern  latitudes.  Good 
form  and  rich  color  do  not  always  accompany  palatability  ;  quite  the  con- 
trary, as  some  of  the  most  exquisitely  flavored  apples  and  melons  of 
Nova  Scotia  do  not  compare  in  appearance  with  those  produced  in  local- 
ities much  further  South.  The  use  of  the  electric  light  at  night  in  gar- 
dens will  some  day,  no  doubt,  become  quite  general  where  facilities  for 
its  use  exist,  as  by  its  use  can  be  obtained  all  the  advantages,  and  more, 
afibrded  by  the  long  twilight  of  a  more  Northern  latitude. 

699.  Q.  Adjoining  me  is  a  twenty-acre  field  which  has  been  out  of  use  Soil  Recu- 

peration. 


112 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS. 


Soil  Fertility 
and  Farm 
Practice. 


Coflfee. 


Systems 
of  Heating:. 


"Wire  Grass. 


for  five  years — abandoned  because  of  being  poor  soil.  Is  it  lilcely  to  have 
improved  by  the  rest  during  that  period  ? 

A.  Most  decidedly  ;  especially  if  in  clover  or  grass,  particularly  clover; 
but  even  an  annual  crop  of  weeds,  not  removed  for  five  successive  sea- 
sons, protecting  the  surface  for  five  successive  Winters,  will  have  done  it 
much  good,  the  weeds  collecting,  but  to  a  far  less  degree  than  clover,  fer- 
tilizing constituents  from  the  air,  the  deeji-rooted  ones  drawing  more  from 
the  soil  below  plow  depth  and  their  covering  of  the  surface  in  a  green 
form  in  Summer  and  dry,  dead  form  in  Winter  promoting  the  accumula- 
tion of  plant  foods,  especially  potash. 

700.  Q.  Which  are  the  most  fertile,  the  farm  lands  of  the  United  States 
or  those  of  England  ? 

A.  The  soils  of  this  country,  being  newer,  are  naturally  more  fully 
charged  with  natural  plant  food,  but  here  they  are  not  cultivated  under 
the  intelligent  and  intense  systems  and  processes  of  the  English  and 
Scotch,  where  the  farmers  are  more  thoroughly  grounded  in  the  princi- 
ples of  agriculture.  This  agricultural  intelligence  and  the  moister  cli- 
mate of  England  result  in  the  growth  of  larger  crops  of  potatoes,  oats, 
wheat,  barley,  flax,  and  cattle  roots.  American  farmers,  while  more 
intelligent  upon  the  whole  range  of  general  subjects,  more  self-reliant 
and  better  able  to  meet  unexpected  difliculties,  are,  as  a  rule,  only 
veneered  with  agricultural  information.  Just  the  same  as  the  Ameri- 
can people  are  veneered  with  scientific  and  literary  information,  or 
as  our  politicians  are  with  statecraft,  compared  with  the  more  thor- 
oughly educated  men  of  Europe.  Educated  farmers,  that  is,  men  hav- 
ing a  fully  practical  and  partly  a  scientific  knowledge  of  agriculture 
and  all  its  processes,  are  able,  on  comparatively  worked-out  soils,  to 
reap  a  better  return  than  the  happy-go-lucky  farmers  of  portions  of  our 
own  country,  even  be  they  located  on  soil  of  virgin  fertility.  Farmers 
satisfied  to  drag  day  after  day  over  the  miserable  public  roads  of  this 
country,  do  not  show  much  of  those  qualities  possessed  by  the  farmers  of 
England  ;  and  their  willingness  to  rest  satisfied  with  the  road  conditions 
illustrates  the  condition  of  their  farms  and  their  systems  of  culture. 

701.  Q.  Can  a  good  substitute  for  coflee  be  made  from  dandelion  root? 
A.  Quite  a  good  imitation  ;  but  better  from  chlckory,  and  in  greater 

quantity,  as  chickory  produces  a  larger  root.  It  is  grown  like  carrots, 
plowed  out  after  frost,  washed,  sliced  and  dried.  By  some  preferred  to 
coffee  ;  is  an  excellent  adulterant. 

702.  Q.  Which  is  the  best  system  of  heating  forcing  houses  ? 

A.  This  is  a  question  which  has  been  under  discussion  for  years,  and 
probably  will  continue  to  be  discussed  for  a  long  time.  The  arguments 
are  so  conclusive  as  put  forth  by  the  partisans  of  each  system,  that  when 
listening  to  the  advocates  of  one  system  no  room  seems  to  be  left  to  doubt 
till  the  opposite  side  is  heard.     The  writer,  personally,  favors  hot  water. 

703.  Q.  My  grass  plot  is  completely  taken  possession  of  by  wire  grass. 
Whatshallldo? 


QUERIES  AND   ANSWERS.  113 

A.  Only  one  course  is  practical,  and  that  is  to  dig  up  and  remove  the 
roots  and  soil,  going  to  a  depth  of  twelve  inches  Fill  in  the  excavations 
with  new  earth  free  from  wire  grass. 

704.  Q.  Are  the  methods  of  agriculture  advancing  as  rapidly  as  the  Methods  of 
practice  of  other  arts  and  professions  ?      .  ,  Agriculture. 

A.  No  art  is  so  favored.  No  art  has  so  many  newspapers  published 
exclusively  in  its  interests.  Nearly  every  State  of  the  Union  has  estab- 
lished agricultural  experimental  stations.  Every  scientific  naturalist  is 
working  in  the  interest  of  agriculture.  Thus  there  is  being  developed  a 
theory  of  agriculture  ;  but  theory  and  the  results  of  practice  do  not  always 
harmonize,  as  no  control  can  be  exercised  over  the  degrees  of  rainfall, 
cold  or  heat,  all  of  which  have  so  direct  an  influence  over  the  growth  of 
plants,  and  little  can  be  done  to  prevent  the  appearance  of  fungi  and 
insect  enemies  ;  only  palliative  remedies  when  they  do  appear.  Agricul- 
tural theories  are  very  valuable,  but  they  alone  will  not  make  a  crop,  as 
a  ship-building  designer  plans  an  ocean  racer. 

705.  Q.  Why  do  cabbage  heads  sometimes  burst  open  or  split?  Cabbage 
A.  Because  of  an  excess  of  moisture  pumped  up  by  the  roots  and  so    ""^^  ^"^' 

distending  the  tissues  of  the  interior  leaves  as  to  burst  the  exterior  ones. 
Cabbages  while  in  a  healthy,  growing  condition  never  burst,  but  only 
under  the  influences  of  a  second  growth. 

706.  Q.  My  melon  vines,  now  half-grown,  are  dying  at  the  root.     Can  Fungus. 
I  do  anything  to  save  them  ? 

A.  The  trouble  may  be  from  sunburn  or  from  underground  grubs,  but 
most  probably  it  arises  from  a  fungous  attack  destructive  to  the  bark  of 
stem  and  roots.  If  this  be  so  the  bark  is  brown  and  slufllng  ofi".  Noth- 
ing can  be  done  to  positively  arrest  the  disease.  Lime  and  sulphur  may 
have  a  good  efi"ect. 

707.  Q.  What  efl"ect  has  nitrate  of  soda  upon  garden  vegetable  crops,  Nitrate  of 
and  can  it  be  used  to  the  exclusion  of  other  fertilizers  ?  Soda. 

A.  Nitrate  of  soda  is  valuable  for  its  nitrogen,  which  is  an  active  stim- 
ulant. Especially  valuable  to  leaf-producing  plants.  It  is  not  a  com- 
plete fertilizer,  as  plants  want  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  also.  Most  soils 
contain  enough  lime. 

708.  Q.  What  is  the  best  receptacle  I  can  use  to  exclude  moisture  from  Keeping 
my  garden  seeds  ?  Seeds. 

A.  Tin  boxes  with  screw  tops  or  glass  jars  made  air-tight  by  rubbers, 
as  in  preserving  jars. 

709.  Q.  What  is  the  difierence  in  the  production  of  seed  in  the  Russian  Sunflower. 
sunflower  and  the  old  form  ? 

A.  The  Russian  is  twice  as  productive,  2500  pounds  of  seed  have  been 
raised  to  the  acre.  The  Russian  produces  but  one  flower  to  the  stalk. 
The  seed  is  valuable  as  food  for  poultry,  hogs  and  cattle,  and  for  making 
oil. 

710   Q.  When  spraying  my  melon  vines  to  kill  the  louse  can  I  raise  up  Melon 
the  vines  so  as  to  expose  the  under  surface  to  the  spray  ?  Louse. 


114 


QUERIES  AND  ANSWERS. 


Plant 
Growth. 


Vegetable 
Sweetness. 


Okra. 


Egg  Plant 
Fungus. 


Liima  Bean. 


Mushrooms. 


A.  Yes,  you  can  do  it ;  but  the  disturbance  to  the  vines  would  do  as 
much  harm  as  the  insects.  Melon  vines,  when  over  half-grown,  are  seri- 
ously injured  by  lifting.  It  is  just  here  that  the  difficulty  of  spraying 
melons  in  the  field  comes  in — it  can  seldom  be  done  efficiently. 

711.  Q.  At  what  period  of  the  twenty-four  hours  do  plants  grow  with 
the  greatest  rapidity  ? 

A.  Most,  but  not  all,  grow  fastest  at  night,  as  can  be  readily  observed 
by  marking  the  relative  day  and  night  growth  of  the  runners  of  water- 
melon, cantaloupe,  squash,  pumpkin;  sometimes  these  will  extend  fifteen 
Inches  between  sunset  and  sunrise,  while  not  lengthening  over  three 
inches  during  the  day. 

713.  Q.  Is  there  any  difference  in  the  degree  of  sweetness  of  water- 
melons grown  in  different  latitudes  ? 

A.  Yes  ;  all  fruits,  apples,  pears,  peaches,  as  they  approach  their 
northern  limits  of  possible  production,  develop  a  degree  of  sweetness  not 
possessed  by  others  grown  more  southward.  The  watermelons  of  the 
Southern  States  are  never  as  sweet  as  those  grown  in  New  Jersey. 

713.  Q.  Among  Okras  which  sort  is  the  best  ? 

A.  Long  Green  Pod  in  every  respect,  and  in  fact  no  other  sort  is  worth 
cultivating  if  this  one  can  be  had. 

714.  Q.  Something  is  the  matter  with  my  egg  plant  bushes,  they  are  all 
sickly  and  yellow  and  promise  failure.    Can  I  do  anything  to  keep  them  ? 

A.  There  is  not  much  chance  of  a  good  crop  from  the  egg  plant  if  the 
bushes  once  lose  their  vigor  ;  indeed  they  should  never  be  stunted  or  ad- 
verted in  growth.  If  they  are  brown  or  black  on  the  bark  of  the  stems 
near  the  earth  they  are  suffering  from  a  fungous  growth  living  upon  the 
tissues  of  the  bark,  and  nothing  will  stop  it  with  certainty  ;  and  even  then 
a  most  serious  injury  will  remain  if  the  bark  of  the  stalks  has  been  half 
destroyed.  Spray  the  stalks  near  the  ground  with  Bordeaux  mixture. 
Next  year  give  your  egg  plant  land  nitrate  of  soda  at  the  rate  of  400 
pounds  to  the  acre;  it  may  destroy  the  fungus  and  will  give  the  plants  in- 
creased vigor  to  resist  the  disease  besides  giving  a  better  color  to  the  fruit. 

715.  Q.  Will  a  Lima  bean,  if  planted  with  the  eye  upward  sprout  earlier 
than  if  planted  with  the  eye  downward? 

A.  They  do  best  planted  eyes  down  and  not  over  one  inch  deep. 

716.  Q.  Will  you  please  give  me  the  most  simple  and  inexpensive 
method  for  cultivating  mushrooms  from  the  spawn  ? 

A.  There  is  no  simple  and  easy  method  of  doing  it  for  the  novice  to 
follow.  It  is  work  which  only  an  experienced  hand  can  do  with  good 
chance  of  success.  The  work  is  rough  enough  in  the  handling  and  incorpo- 
ration of  horse  manure  and  good  soil,  but  to  do  it  well  one  must  have 
had  lessons  from  an  expert.  In  no  garden  process  is  there  such  contra- 
dictory practice  as  in  mushroom  culture.  For  instance,  one  successful 
grower  will  gather  dry  droppings  from  horses,  and  still  further  dry  them 
by  spreading  and  frequent  turning  under  cover.  Another,  equally  suc- 
cessful as  a  grower,  dispenses  with  all  this  trouble,  taking  stable  dung 


QUERIES  AND  ANSWERS.  115 

fresh  from  the  stalls,  and  mixing  in  a  fourth  part  of  good  friable  loam, 
piling  it  up  for  a  week,  then  turning  it  over,  and,  if  fermenting  too 
strongly,  adding  more  loam. 

A  third  grower  takes  his  manure  from  an  ordinary  barnyard  pile,  and 
mixes  in  a  fourth  part  of  loam.  Other  growers  will  not  use  manure 
which  has  been  fermenting,  claiming  that  it  will  not  produce  mushrooms 
or  a  continuous  crop.  Another  system  is  to  take  any  good  stable  manure, 
and,  removing  sticks,  stones,  very  long  straw,  or  otlier  coarse  material, 
thoroughly  mix  and  pile  it  in  beds  two  feet  high,  thoroughly  wet  with 
water  and  stamp  down.  After  a  week  or  ten  days,  by  which  time  it  is 
quite  hot,  the  pile  is  reworked  and  left  for  another  ten  days,  then  it  is  in 
condition  to  be  made  into  beds  of  the  proper  form  and  seeded.  Some- 
times four  to  six  weeks  are  taken  in  the  preparation  of  the  manure,  a 
leading  object  with  most  cultivators  being  to  have  it  half  decomposed, 
completely  mixed,  but  not  wet. 

Possibly  the  best  system  for  the  amateur  to  pursue  is  to  prepare  his 
manure  pile  under  cover,  as  in  a  shed  or  cellar,  making  his  pile  one-fourth 
loam  and  three-fourths  of  the  best  stable  manure  he  can  get,  horse  dung 
predominating,  which  should  be  piled  first,  to  allow  it  to  lose  its  fiercest 
heat,  the  loam  helping  to  solidify  the  mixture.  At  spawning  time  the 
heat  in  the  beds  sliould  range  from  60°  to  80°,  never  above  85°.  The 
heat  of  a  bed  may  be  reduced  by  opening  holes  with  a  crowbar,  forcing 
it  down  to  the  very  bottom.  One  bushel  of  spawn  broken  into  lumps  of 
an  inch  in  size  is  sufficient  for  100  square  feet  of  bed  surface.  The  beds 
can  be  made  on  the  floors  of  cellars,  sheds,  or  under  the  benches  of  a 
greenhouse,  or  on  raised  benches  like  shelves  in  a  closet. 

717.  Q.  Why  is  the  Lima  bean  so  called?  UmaBean. 
A.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  first  found  at  Lima.     Certainly  as  a 

novelty  it  was  introduced  as  from  there.  It  may  have  been  a  native  of 
Peru  or  an  original  production  in  its  present  form,  or  it  may  have  been 
developed  from  some  other  bean  as  a  consequence  of  some  peculiar  condi- 
tion of  climate  in  Peru.  At  the  present  day  both  white,  black  and  spotted 
Limas  are  cultivated  in  that  country. 

718.  Q.  What  was  the  color  of  the  first  variety  of  tomato  cultivated  ?    First 
A.  It  was  red,  and  was  first  cultivated  in  Europe  in  1596.     The  first  Tomato. 

catalogue  reference  to  the  yellow  tomato  was  by  Landreth,  in  1820.  The 
yellow  sorts  are  generally  of  the  best  flavor. 

719.  Q.  Do  some  plant  bugs  eat  up  other  plant  bugs?  insectivorona 
A.  Yes  ;  the  lice  on  cucumber  vines  and  on  melons  are  eaten  up  in  ^"S^. 

large  numbers  by  a  species  of  lady  bug,  and  some  species  of  flies  eat  the 
larvae  of  the  asparagus  beetle.  There  are  many  insects  which  feed  on 
each  other. 

720.  Q.  Is  it  true  that  the  sugar  corn  grown  in  the  State  of  Maine  is  Sugar  Com. 
sweeter  than  the  same  variety  of  corn  grown  in  Virginia? 

A.  Undoubtedly;  and  a  consequence  of  the  long  days  of  July  and 
August.     In  Maine,  the  evening  twilight  lasts  till  9  and  10  o'clock,  and 


116 


QUERIES   AND  ANSWERS. 


Radish. 


Effect  of 
Selection. 


Cabbage 
Idee. 


Hearing  of 
Insects. 


Electric 
light. 


Hybridiza- 
tion. 


Sight  of 
Insects. 


Asphyxiation 
of  Insects. 


Grain 
Insects. 


the  morning  twilight  begins  a  little  after  3  o'clock.  In  fact  it  is  only  dark 
for  four  or  five  hours  This  results  in  the  development  of  a  degree  of  sugar 
far  greater  than  possessed  by  any  corn  which  can  be  grown  in  Virginia. 

721.  Q.  Which  is  the  best  Long  White  radish  ? 

A.  Lady-finger  is  three  to  four  inches  long,  pure  white,  very  brittle 
and  early  of  maturity. 

722.  Q.  Does  careful  selection  over  many  years  successivelj''  weaken 
the  seeding  qualities  of  vegetables  ? 

A.  Yes  ;  all  high-class  vegetables,  like  animals,  being  by  intense  selec- 
tion weakened  in  perpetuative  powers. 

723.  Q.  Is  a  field  afiiicted  with  cabbage  lice  upon  a  crop  likely  to  be 
affected  with  lice  the  next  year? 

A.  Yes,  unless  the  Winter  is  severe,  in  which  case  not  an  insect  may 
appear  the  succeeding  Summer.  If  then  they  appear  they  can  be  kept  in 
partial  check  by  kerosene  emulsion,  the  previous  season  demonstrating 
the  necessity  of  being  prepared  to  fight  them  immediately  upon  their  first 
appearance. 

724.  Q.  Do  garden  insects  hear? 

A.  Yes,  to  a  slight  extent.  The  sound-producing  insects  all  make 
their  noises  by  abdominal  joints,  never  through  their  mouths. 

725.  Q.  What  is  the  effect  of  electric  light  on  growing  plants? 

A.  Electric  light  seems  to  take  to  a  degree  the  place  of  solar  light,  the 
plants  continuing  to  decompose  carbonic  acid,  to  extract  oxygen,  and  to 
perspire.  A  plant's  health  depends  very  much  upon  the  quantity  of  car- 
bonic acid  decomposed  ;  consequently  the  electric  light  is  valuable  as  ex- 
tending, as  it  were,  the  hours  of  daylight. 

726.  Q.  Will  cabbage  and  turnip  plants,  blooming  alongside  of  each 
other,  hybridize? 

A.  There  is  little  danger  of  hybridization  occurring  under  natural  con- 
ditions, even  if  a  field  of  cabbage  and  one  of  turnips  be  immediately  ad- 
jacent, but  a  hybridization  will  occur  if  an  intense  effort  be  made  to- 
effect  it. 

727.  Q.  Is  the  sight  of  insects  well  developed  ? 

A.  No  ;  very  imperfectly.  They  are  to  a  large  extent  guided  in  their 
movements  by  sense  organs  with  which  man  has  none  to  compare. 

728.  Q.  Is  there  any  gas  which  I  can  use  to  kill  bugs  on  my  garden 
plants  ? 

A.  You  can  use  the  vapor  of  bisulphide  of  carbon,  provided  you  can 
procure  air-tight  vessels  of  paper,  tin,  or  glass  to  completely  cover  the 
plants.  Under  these  coverings,  placed  over  the  plants,  introduce  one 
tablespoon ful  of  the  liquid,  which  will  evaporate  and  asphyxiate  all  in- 
sects within  an  hour.  The  breathing  apparatus  of  insects  pervades  the 
whole  body,  and  poisonous  vapors  penetrate  simultaneously  the  entire 
system.     Don't  inhale  the  vapor,  as  it  is  a  rank  poison. 

729.  Q.  What  is  the  best  course  to  adopt  to  kill  insects  in  dry  wheats 
corn,  or  other  grain  or  seed  ? 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS.  117 

A.  Treatment  with  fumes  of  bisulphide  of  carbon.  The  grain,  how- 
ever, if  to  be  used  for  milling,  must  be  thoroughly  aired,  otherwise  an 
offensive  odor  will  remain.  The  work  must  be  done  in  an  air-tight  room 
of  a  size  corresponding  to  the  amount  of  the  seed  to  be  treated.  Four 
quarts  of  bisulphide  is  sufficient  to  treat  four  hundred  bushels  of  grain  at 
one  application.  The  exposure  to  the  fumes  should  be  from  ten  to  twenty 
hours.  No  fire  should,  in  any  case,  be  allowed  near  the  room  in  which 
the  treatment  takes  place,  as  the  vapor  is  highly  explosive. 

730.  Q.  How  long  should  I  wait  for  seed  to  sprout  before  condemning  Unvitai 
the  seed  as  unvitai  ?  Seed. 

A.  That  depends  on  the  age  of  the  seed,  the  kind  of  seed,  the  time  of 
sowing,  the  condition  of  the  soil  when  sown,  and  the  subsequent  condi- 
tions of  atmosphere,  and  how  shallow  or  how  deeply  put  in.  Any  one  of 
these  conditions  being  very  unfavorable  might  prevent  germination  of 
perfectly  vital  seed.  Some  people  are  entirely  too  quick  to  jump  at  a 
conclusion  that  because  seed  don't  come  up  that  it  is  unvitai.  They 
know  too  much,  based  on  a  very  small  experience. 

731.  Q.  "Why  do  I  have  so  much  trouble  in  securing  a  good  stand  of  Parsnips, 
parsnips  ? 

A.  The  seed  is  always  very  light  and  slow  to  germinate,  even  under 
the  most  favorable  conditions.  When  the  soil  is  dry,  and  still  worse, 
baked  by  the  sun,  the  seed  is  especially  slow  to  sprout ;  but,  left  alone,  it 
will  generally  come  in  time.  Many  crops  are  given  up  by  the  planters 
entirely  too  soon — they  should  have  patience. 

733.  Q.  Why  are  New  Jersey  cantaloupes  sweeter  than  those  grown  Jersey 
farther  South  ?  Cantaloupes. 

A.  A  section  two  hundred  or  three  hundred  miles  farther  north  of  a 
more  southern  section  enjoys  a  longer  daylight  and  twilight  during  July 
and  August,  just  as  in  extreme  Northern  regions,  approaching  the  North 
pole,  the  sun  does  not  set,  but  shines  continuously  the  twenty-four  hours. 
This  condition  of  extended  daylight  is  favorable  to  the  development  of 
sugar.  Visitors  to  Canada  in  August  never  fail  to  praise  the  Montreal 
melons  for  their  delicious  flavor.  The  seed,  taken  from  the  melons  and 
planted  in  a  more  southern  locality,  will  not  produce  melons  equal  to  the 
originals  ;  and  generally  Northern  seed  is  not  all  vital,  due  to  imperfect 
pollination.  New  Jersey  cantaloupes  unite  all  the  good  qualities  of  form, 
size,  color  and  flavor.  Jersey  sands  seem  to  be  the  home  of  the  canta- 
loupe. 

733.  Q.  When  does  the  pollination  of  squash,  melon,  cucumber,  and  Pollination. 
flow^ers  of  all  other  vine  plants  of  like  character  take  place? 

A.  Nearly  always  early  in  the  morning,  and  generally  through  the 
agency  of  insects.  Some  time  may  elapse  during  the  passage  through  the 
style  to  the  ovules,  but  it  gets  there  finally.  The  female  flower  of  the 
cucurbit  family  generally  produces  an  embryo  fruit  or  ovary  before  fecun- 
dation. Their  fruit,  if  not  fecundated,  either  produce  unvitai  seed  or  most 
generally  drop  off".     Vine  crops  are  retarded  in  pollination  when  frequent 


118 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS. 


Keeping 
Sugar  Corn. 


Under- 
ground 
Grubs. 

Classes  of 
Insects. 


Insects  in 
Glass  House. 


Cabbage 
Heading. 


Vital 
Melon  Seeds, 


Cabbage 
liice. 


foggy  mornings  occur  during  the  period  of  blooming,  tlie  water  wetting 
the  pollen  and  the  succeeding  hot  sun  burning  it. 

734.  Q.  I  buy  my  Sugar  corn  seed  always  about  January  1,  and  when 
I  come  to  unpack  it  in  February  1  often  notice  a  musty  smell  about  it. 
How  can  I  prevent  this  ? 

A.  Sugar  corn  is  very  full  of  oil,  which  becomes  rancid  if  the  seed  is 
not  dried  thoroughly.  Received  in  January,  or  even  in  February,  it 
should  be  immediately  taken  out  of  the  original  packages,  bags  or  boxes, 
and  spread  out,  not  over  four  inches  deep,  on  a  cool  floor.  If  this  pre- 
caution is  not  taken  there  may  be  much  complaint  from  planters  that  the 
vitality  proved  to  be  low,  when  its  failure  to  sprout  was  entirely  the  fault 
of  the  merchant  or  dealer. 

735.  Q.  What  are  the  various  articles  which  I  can  use  to  kill  grubs  and 
worms  under  the  surface  of  the  soil  ? 

A.  Kerosene  emulsion,  kainit,  bisulphide  of  carbon,  all  are  effective. 

736.  Q.  How  many  classes  of  insects  has  a  gardener  to  flght? 

A.  1.  Those  known  as  external  feeders,  comprehending  all  which  bite 
and  eat  vegetable  matter. 

2.  Those  known  as  sap-suckers,  which  puncture  vegetable  tissues  and 
extract  the  juices. 

3.  Those  known  as  internal  feeders,  which  exist  within  the  stems  of 
plants. 

4.  Subterranean  insects,  which  eat  vegetable  matter  beneath  the  surface. 

5.  Those  which  destroy  the  dry  seeds,  either  from  the  exterior  or  in- 
terior. 

737.  Q.  How  can  I  best  kill  lice  and  other  insects  on  melon  plants  in 
my  glass  house  ? 

A.  Fumigate  with  tobacco  twice  a  week.  Don't  wait  till  damage  is 
done,  but  smoke  before  the  lice  curl  the  leaves.  Mites  and  mealy-bugs 
can  be  knocked  off  the  vines  by  a  hard  stream  of  water.  Bisulphide  of 
carbon,  when  it  can  be  applied  to  plants  under  a  bell  glass,  is  very  effec- 
tive, but  the  chemical  is  explosive  and  poisonous.  Suli^hur  fumes  are  an 
invaluable  agent  in  destroying  mildew  and  red  spider.  There  is  no  ex- 
cuse for  failure  to  kill  insects  inside  of  a  glass  house. 

738.  Q.  Why  do  cabbage  plants  sometimes  fail  to  head,  though  fully 
old  enough  and  planted  out  early  enough  ? 

A.  Because  of  a  want  of  nutrition.  Cabbage  plants  sufficiently  fed, 
and  given  time  enough,  will  always  head,  provided  the  variety  be  of  a 
heading  sort. 

739.  Q.  Is  a  melon  seed  from  a  fruit  in  edible  condition  perfectly  de- 
veloped ? 

A.  Quite  sufficiently  developed.  Allowed  to  remain  in  the  fruit  till  it 
decayed,  the  seed  would  probably  more  fully  fill  out  and  become  heavier, 
and  retain  its  vitality  for  a  year  or  two  longer. 

740.  Q.  Is  there  a  reliable  remedy  which  can  be  used  to  rid  cabbage 
plants  of  lice  1 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS.  119 

A.  Kerosene  emulsion  is  probably  the  best — nothing  is  a  positive 
cure. 

741.  Q.  What  is  the  effect  of  the  successive  use  for  years  of  but  one  Commercial 
kind  of  commercial  fertilizer?  Fertuizerg. 

A.  The  land  will  gradually  decrease  in  productive  capacity.  Any,  or 
all,  commercial  fertilizers  used  for  years  successively  without  stable  man- 
ure or  green  crops  plowed  under  will  in  the  end  be  disappointing. 

742.  Q.  My  lettuce,  which  promised  a  big  profit,  nearly  all  decayed  i^ettuce 
before  maturity.     What  is  the  cause  ?  ungi* 

A.  No  doubt  a  fungus,  for  which  there  is  no  efTective  remedy,  the  let- 
tuce leaves  being  too  delicate  to  resist  treatment.     The  only  remedy  is  to  . 
avoid  that  field  the  next  year. 

743.  Q.  Which  is  the  most  productive  third  early  pea  of  excellent  Bioomsdaie 
quality  for  private  or  market  garden  ?  ^®*' 

A.  The  Bioomsdaie  pea  is  phenomenally  productive  and  in  eating 
qualities  surpassed  only  by  the  Landreths'  Extra  Early,  having  its  size, 
color,  flavor  and  general  appearance  when  cooked.  It  matures  its 
pods  for  table  sixty -fi^e  days  from  germination  and  continues  to  bear  for 
ten  days  a  profusion  of  pods  containing  nine  to  ten  peas  in  a  pod. 

744.  Q.  Of  tomatoes  now  in  general  cultivation  which  is  the  most  Best 
showy  as  respects  color,  size  and  shape  ?  Tomatoes. 

A.  The  Stone  ;  but  several  of  the  Bioomsdaie  Hybrids  are  superior  to  it 
in  productiveness,  earliness  and  shape. 

745.  Q.  What  vegetables  are  there  which  can  be  grown  in  this  country  Unusual 
and  which  are  really  worthy  of  general  culture,  but  which  are  not  so  cul- ^  ®^®****^*'** 
tivated  ? 

A.  Swiss  Chard  beet,  the  thick,  marrow-like  ribs  of  the  leaves  of 
which  are  eaten  when  prepared  like  stewed  celery.  Broccoli,  which  some- 
times succeeds  where  cauliflower  fails.  Brussels  sprouts,  which  if  not 
destroyed  by  lice  will  grow  to  perfection  wherever  the  cabbage  will  flour- 
ish. Dandelion,  the  leaves  furnishing  an  excellent  salad.  Sorrel,  the 
long-leaved,  very  popular  in  France  and  Germany  as  a  salad.  Cos  let- 
tuce, a  form  which  should  be  better  known. 

746.  Q.  How  many  kinds  of  insects  are  there  feeding  upon  garden  Number  of 
vegetables,  and  how  many  sorts  of  rusts  are  there  which  efl'ect  a  lodg-  insects  and 
ment  upon  garden  vegetables  ?  ^**    *' 

A.  Vegetables,  like  men,  are  subject  to  so  many  diseases  that  it  is  a 
wonder  they  ever  arrive  at  maturity.  To  enumerate  the  number  of  in- 
sects would  be  difiicult,  especially  as  the  number  is  always  changed  by 
the  apparent  disappearance  of  some  and  the  unexpected  appearance  of 
others.  So  also  with  fungi,  there  being  increase  and  diminution  by  con- 
ditions of  moisture,  heat,  and  previous  condition  of  soil. 

747.  Q.  What  is  the  most  intensive  branch  of  commercial  vegetable  intensive 

a  Culture. 

growmg  ? 

A.  Winter  culture  under  glass  as  specially  applied  to  the  growing  of 
tomatoes,  cantaloupes,  mushrooms,  cucumbers  and  cauliflowers. 


120 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS. 


Omameiital 
Flowers. 


Bordeaux 
Mixture. 


Bordeaux 
Mixture  and 
Paris  Green. 


Poisoning  by 

Bordeaux 

Itlixtui'e. 


History  of 
Bordeaux 
Mixture. 


Time  to 
DriU. 


748.  Q.  Why  cannot  I  succeed  in  Virginia  in  growing  ornamental 
flowers  with  the  same  success  as  I  did  in  England? 

A.  In  England  the  climate  is  damp,  while  in  Virginia  it  is  dry,  the  annual 
rainfall  in  Virginia  not  being  over  one-third  of  as  many  inches  of  water. 
Some  seasons  annual  and  biennial  flowers  do  admirably  in  the  vicinity  of 
Philadelphia,  other  years  they  are  miserable  failures,  all  depending  upon 
the  climatic  conditions  in  June,  July  and  August. 

749.  Q.  Will  the  repeated  application  of  Bordeaux  mixture  poison  the 
soil? 

A.  No  records  of  any  injury,  the  copper  sulphate  being  neutralized  by 
the  lime. 

750.  Q.  Can  Bordeaux  mixture,  a  fungicide,  be  mixed  with  an  insecti- 
cide, and  both  applied  at  once  ? 

A.  Yes ;  Paris  green  or  London  purple  can  be  mixed  with  Bordeaux 
mixture — one  pound  of  the  arsenite  to  100  gallons  of  Bordeaux — and  used 
to  good  efi'ect.  As  the  mixture  is  very  tenacious,  care  must  be  observed 
not  to  apply  it  immediately  before  the  ripening  of  fruit,  as  rain  will  not 
entirely  wash  off"  the  application,  and  some  poison  might  remain  on  the 
fruit  or  vegetable. 

751.  Q.  Is  there  danger  of  poisoning  members  of  the  human  family 
through  fruits  or  vegetables  which  have  been  sprayed  by  Bordeaux 
mixture? 

A.  None  whatever,  so  far  as  any  records  go ;  but  it  is  best  to  avoid 
risks,  and  as  maturation  of  fruits  or  vegetables  approach  to  decrease  to 
one-half  the  strength  of  the  solution. 

752.  Q.  What  is  Bordeaux  mixture?  When  was  it  introduced  and 
what  is  it  used  for  ? 

A.  It  was  introduced  among  the  grape  growers  of  Bordeaux,  France, 
about  1878,  but  not  brought  into  prominent  notice  until  six  to  seven  years 
later,  when  it  was  largely  used  in  the  treatment  of  black  rot  and  downy 
mildew.  This  fungicide  is  now  in  more  general  use  in  the  United  States 
than  in  any  other  pai't  of  the  world  because  American  cultivators  as  a 
mass  are  more  progressive  men  than  foreigners.  Much  confusion  exists 
as  to  its  preparation.  The  general  standard  now  may  be  taken  as  six 
pounds  of  good  copper  sulphate,  free  from  iron  or  zinc,  four  pounds  of 
strong,  fresh  quicklime,  twenty-two  gallons  of  water.  This  mixture, 
which  may  be  diluted  by  the  admixture  of  two  or  three  parts  more  of 
water,  is  used  for  spraying  fruit  trees,  and  all  garden  productions  for  the 
destruction  of  any  vegetable  fungous  growth. 

753.  Q.  When  drilling  garden  seeds  is  it  best  to  drill  before  or  after  a 
rain? 

A.  If  the  drilling  is  done  before  rain  the  seed  may  lay  without  sprout- 
ing for  days  or  even  weeks,  and  the  land  baked  hard  as  a  brick,  or  if  the 
seed  sprouts  from  a  little  moisture  it  may  subsequently  die  for  want  of 
more  moisture.  If  rain  quickly  follows  the  drilling  the  germinating  con- 
ditions may  be  all  right,  but  the  seed  may  be  washed  out  of  the  drills  or 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS.  121 

may  be  covered  deeply  by  flooding  and  the  stand  be  unsatisfactory.  On 
the  other  hand,  drilling  after  a  rain  is  best,  because  germination  follows 
immediately  and  uniformly  with  little  risk  of  a  setback  to  the  crop. 

754.  Q.  Is  it  a  saving  in  labor  and  time  to  have  long  or  short  fields  on  Plowing  and 

a  farm  ?  Cultivating. 

A.  It  is  decidedly  economical  in  time  to  have  a  farm  laid  out  in  long 
fields,  but  it  is  seldom  appreciated.  On  an  acre  field  of  ninety  yards  in 
length  the  time  consumed  in  turning  a  plow  and  team  on  headlands  is 
over  three  hours  out  of  a  day  of  ten  hours,  but  on  a  field  300  yards  long  the 
time  consumed  is  but  one  hour. 

755.  Q.  How  far  does  a  plowman  walk  in  turning  over  an  acre  of  ground?  Plowman. 
A.  If  his  furrow  slices  be  nine  inches  wide  he  has  to  walk  over  seven 

miles  to  the  acre. 

756.  Q.  Do  garden  vegetables  possess  any  quality  like  sensation  ?  Plant 
A.  Most  certainly  ;    their  vital  force  in  many  instances  being  quite 

animal ;  and,  more  than  that,  they  sometimes  seem  to  possess  intellect. 
They  collapse  under  chloroform  ;  they  perish  under  many  poisons  which 
destroy  animal  life  ;  they  possess  a  circulation,  which  sometimes  can  be 
seen,  their  pollen  unerringly  performs  its  functions.  In  cases  of  vege- 
table irritability  there  are  many  plants,  notably  aquatic,  which  act  more 
curiously  than  the  Sensitive  plant ;  indeed,  so  briskly  locomotive  as  to 
make  it  difticult  to  determine  whether  vegetable  or  animal.  In  the  case 
of  the  so-called  meat-eating  plants  some  of  the  flowers  display  extreme 
irritability  when  meat  is  brought  near  to  them,  while  they  are  entirely 
passive  upon  the  approach  of  all  other  objects. 

757.  Q.  Are  not  yellow  ruta  bagas  and  yellow  carrots  more  nutritious  ^'"t*>  and 
than  white  ruta  bagas  and  white  carrots  ?  r**'*  ^ 

A.  As  a  rule,  vegetables  of  deep  colors  are  considered  richer  than  those 
without  color.  But  this  is  probably  a  fiction  ;  the  most  sugary  beets  used 
in  Europe  for  sugar-making  are  white.  The  sweetest  of  all  table  beets, 
the  Bassano,  is  nearly  white. 

758.  Q.  How  can  I  kill  the  last  crop  of  potato  bugs,  so  that  I  may  par-  Potato  Bug. 
tially  rid  my  fields  of  the  pest  for  next  year? 

A.  After  the  potato  crop  is  harvested  take  a  portion  of  the  small,  un- 
salable tubers,  and  chop  them  up  in  halves  and  quarters  and  dust  them 
well  with  Paris  green.  Broadcast  these  poisoned  pieces  over  the  potato 
field  and  they  will  soon  be  covered  with  bugs,  all  of  whom  will  be  killed. 

759.  Q.  How  can  I  protect  my  watermelon  patch  from  crows,  which  Crows. 
plug  the  fruit  ? 

A.  Dissolve  a  quarter  ounce  of  strychnine  in  four  quarts  of  water  and 
into  the  solution  put  one-half  bushel  of  corn.  Let  it  soak  for  ten  hours. 
Spread  the  soaked  corn  over  bare  spots  in  the  melon  field  and  the  crows 
will  not  come  back  for  a  second  dose. 

760.  Q.  Is  there  such  a  thing  as  a  rust-proof  Wax  bean,  and  will  not  the  Rust-proof 
so-called  Rust-proof  Wax  bean  rust  under  certain  conditions  ?  If  so,  what  Wax  Beau, 
is  the  nature  of  such  conditions  ? 


122 


QUERIES  AND   ANSWERS. 


Radish — 
Poor  Crop, 


Fungicide. 


Agrricultural 
Discovery. 


A.  All  beans  will  rust  under  conditions  of  damp  atmosphere.  The 
disease,  as  it  is  called,  is  a  fungous  growth,  which  may  be  partially  routed 
by  the  application  of  Bordeaux  mixture,  but  it  must  not  be  applied  to 
marketable  beans 

761.  Q.  I  have  a  patch  of  radish  growing  from  a  remnant  of  your  seed 
left  over  from  last  year,  when  the  style  of  the  roots  were  perfect,  but  this 
year  the  same  lot  of  seed  produces  roots  of  all  shapes. 

A.  This  will  sometimes  happen,  and  is  a  consequence  of  field  conditions 
or  local  influence  ;  each  case  has  its  own  explanation.  We  cannot  be  held 
responsible  for  these  variabilities. 

762.  Q.  What  is  the  best  fungicide? 
A,  Bordeaux  mixture,  by  all  odds.     Any  one  can  make  it  and  apply  it. 

When  a  pump  or  syringe  cannot  be  had,  it  can  be  dashed  on  the  plants 
with  a  broom  dipped  repeatedly  in  a  bucket. 

763.  Q.  What  is  the  latest  agricultural  discovery? 
A.  That  the  roots  of  the  leguminous  family  develop  corpuscles  which 

absorb  nitrogen  from  the  air  and  thus  enrich  the  soil  for  the  feeding  of 
succeeding  crops.  The  eflFect  of  leguminous  plants  is  not  new,  but  the 
manner  of  their  storage  of  nitrogen  is  a  new  discovery,  first  announced  in 
1886  by  Professor  Hollriegel. 
Green  Crops.  764.  Q.  Where  I  came  from,  in  Germany,  the  soil  of  whole  districts 
has  been  raised  from  poverty  to  fertility  by  plowing  under  green  crops  of 
lupines.     Why  is  it  not  done  in  parts  of  Virginia? 

A.  Because  the  lupine  will  not  thrive  in  Virginia  for  want  of  sufficient 
moisture  in  the  air  and  soil.     Try  cow  peas,  which  will  do  perfectly  well. 

765.  Q.  Is  not  cauliflower  an  uncertain  crop  ? 
A.  Sometimes,  but  not  always ;    for  localities  are  known  where  it  is 

uniformly  a  success — so  much  so  that  three  and  four  fine  crops  can  be 
successively  grown  on  the  same  field,  while,  curious  to  say,  other  fields 
not  far  distant  and  apparently  of  same  character  and  quality  prove  to  be 
not  adapted  to  the  crop.  A  salt  atmosphere  is  particularly  favorable  to 
the  perfection  of  cauliflower,  but  in  itself  is  no  assurance  of  success ; 
favorable  soil  is  an  equal  necessity.  These  two  are  not  all,  for  supple- 
mental to  them  must  be  a  moist,  cool  atmosphere  during  the  heading  sea- 
son. It  is  easy  to  grow  cauliflower  leaves — they  will  grow  on  any  cab- 
bage soil — but  to  produce  good  heads  of  cauliflowers  more  is  required  than 
pertains  to  the  most  famous  cabbage-growing  sections. 

766.  Q.  Why  are  more  sports  found  in  a  poor  crop  of  cantaloupes  or 
watermelons  than  in  a  good  crop,  both  good  and  poor  patches  grown  from 
seed  out  of  the  same  package  ? 

A.  The  seed  being  the  same,  the  unfavorable  circumstances  producing 
the  poor  crop,  which  circumstances  may  have  been  too  early  or  too  late 
planting,  want  of  moisture,  want  of  fertility,  insect  attack  or  fungous 
growth,  are  the  causes  of  a  variation  of  uneven  growth  of  vine,  unequal 
development  of  fruit,  all  resulting  in  a  variation  of  shape,  flavor,  or  other 
usual  or  normal  qualities. 


Cauliflower. 


Cantaloupes. 


QUERIES   AND  ANSWERS.  123 

767.  Q.  When  potatoes  of  different  sorts  are  grown  side  by  side,  will  Potato. 
the  mixing  or  hybridization  between  the  flowers  of  distinct  sorts  produce 

any  appreciable  change  in  the  tubers? 

A.  No  effect  whatever,  the  seed  in  the  seed-balls  only  being  affected. 
Every  potato  is  like  a  graft  or  bud  from  the  original  parent,  and  pollina- 
tion don't  affect  it  in  the  least. 

768.  Q.  Does  a  rank  growth  of  vegetables  induce  a  tendency  in  them  Qualities  of 
to  take  on  new  qualities  ?  Vegetables. 

A.  Yes  ;  it  does.  The  most  intense  development  of  qualities  of  approved 
color,  form  and  flavor  are  best  perpetuated  in  half-starved  plants.  On  the 
contrary,  a  luxurious  growth  causes  plants  to  sport  in  all  directions,  to 
run  off  at  tangents,  generally  to  the  bad. 

769.  Q.  I  find  in  my  lettuce  seed  some  sort  of  an  insect  which  spins  a  Lettuce 
web,  causing  the  seed  to  adhere  in  lumps.  Why  did  you  send  me  unclean  ^^ect. 
seed? 

A.  Nearly  all  oily  seeds  stored  under  conditions  favorable  to  the  devel- 
opment of  eggs  will  hatch  out  insects.  Many  of  these  insects  will  spin 
webs  or  otherwise  cause  the  seed  to  adhere  in  lumps.  Nearly  every  seed 
has  its  insect  aflinity,  which  deposits  eggs  in  the  immature  seed  while 
standing  in  the  field.  The  grubs  from  these  eggs  will  hatch  out  under 
conditions  favorable.  The  pea  bug  and  the  bean  weevil  are  familiar  ex- 
amples. Lettuce  seed,  cabbage  and  turnip  and  vine  seed  all  have  their 
insect  enemies. 

770.  Q.  Why  is  it  that  such  seeds  as  I  have  to  keep  for  over  a  few  Humidity 
months  in  my  store  here  at  Summerville,  Ala.,  lose  so  much  of  their  ^^^^^^s 
vitality  ?  ^**^*- 

A.  Because  of  the  moisture  in  your  atmosphere  swelling  the  germs,  to 
be  afterwards  dried  by  change  of  air  and  successively  swollen  and  dried 
several  times,  so  that  vitality  is  seriously  weakened.  This  condition 
applies  in  various  degrees  to  all  those  sections  of  the  Gulf  States  where 
forest  moss  luxuriates.  Where  the  moss  flourishes  the  most  vigorously 
the  conditions  stimulating  its  growth  are  intensely  destructive  to  seed 
vitality,  all  this  the  result  of  moisture  in  the  air  blown  in  from  the  warm, 
damp  waters  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

771.  Q.  Among  the  Yankees,  Winter  squashes  have  a  great  celebrity,  winter 
and  I  have  eaten  them  in  Boston  with  relish,  but  down  here  in  Carolina  ^i"**'*' 
am  disappointed.    Why  is  it  ? 

A.  Altogether  climatic.  With  you  in  the  South  they  grow  too  fast  and 
become  coarse,  stringy,  tough  and  are  deficient  in  sugar.  They  do  best 
in  the  North. 

773.  Q.  Will  corn  grown  from  grain  taken  from  points  and  butts  of  ears  Corn. 
degenerate  ? 

A.  Not  in  one  year  ;  but  if  such  selection  be  continued  for  two  years  or 
more  a  change  would  be  very  noticeable.  The  practice  even  for  one  year 
is  not  to  be  encouraged. 

773.  Q.  Which  is  the  standard  variety  of  late  cabbage  ?  ^**® 

^  J  &  Cabbage. 


124: 


QUERIES   AND  ANSWERS. 


Phonograph 
Pea. 


Squash  Vine. 


Clover. 


Cultivation 

During 

Drought. 


Weeds  on 
Lawn. 


Cucumber 
Beetle. 


Cabbage  for 
Florida. 


A.  Landreths'  Large  Late  Flat  Dutch  is  the  unit  of  comparison  by 
which  all  other  late  sorts  are  graded.  None  exceed  it  and  few  equal  it. 
Variations  of  this  cabbage  have  been  given  all  sorts  of  names,  but  new 
names  make  it  no  better,  while  the  selection  is  often  made  by  men  who 
do  not  know  what  constitutes  a  good  cabbage. 

774.  Q.  Which  is  one  of  the  best  of  the  very  large-podded  peas? 

A.  The  Phonograph,  almost  as  large  podded  as  the  Telephone.  Quite 
as  early  and  productive  and  in  every  way  its  equal,  in  fact  far  sweeter  in 
flavor. 

775.  Q.  What  is  the  matter  with  my  Hubbard  squash  vines  ?  They  are 
nearly  all  dying. 

A.  No  doubt  they  are  dying  at  the  root,  either  from  an  insect  attack  or 
from  a  fungus,  probably  now  too  far  gone  to  do  anything  to  save  them. 
Another  year,  when  the  plants  are  just  beginning  to  run,  treat  them  at 
the  root,  both  with  Bordeaux  mixture  and  an  insecticide. 

776.  Q.  Is  it  advantageous  to  sow  ordinary  Red  clover  with  Crimson 
clover,  that  the  Crimson  may  have  a  succession  ? 

A,  No  ;  the  Crimson  to  be  any  good  should  form  a  dense  mass  the  first 
Spring,  and  such  a  growth  would  smother  out  the  much  less  developed 
plants  of  the  common  Red  clover. 

777.  Q.  Will  frequent  horse  cultivation  of  a  crop  in  dry  weather  tend 
to  provide  the  crop  with  more  moisture  at  the  root  than  if  left  without 
cultivation  ? 

A.  Yes  ;  the  soil  kept  loose  absorbs  more  moisture  than  it  loses.  Keep 
the  horse  cultivator  going  even  if  it  kills  a  few  plants,  the  others  will  be 
benefited  to  more  than  compensate  for  those  injured  by  the  culture. 

778.  Q.  For  twenty  years  weekly,  during  Summer,  I  have  cut  my  lawn 
with  a  horse  lawn  mower  and  no  weed  has  gone  to  seed  or  risen  over  two 
inches  in  height.  This  Summer  I  was  in  Europe,  and  upon  my  return  I 
find  my  once  beautiful  grass  a  wilderness  of  all  sorts  of  weeds.  How  is  it? 

A.  This  is  one  of  the  conumdrums  of  horticulture.  It  is  always  so 
with  any  field  not  kept  in  control,  be  it  grass  or  fallow.  The  seeds  have 
been  there  all  the  time,  a  part  sprouting  every  year,  but  formerly  the 
young  weed  plants  were  cut  off  soon  after  germination.  On  this 
occasion  they  were  not  so  cut  off,  but  attained  full  size,  for  weeds  nearly 
always  grow  quickly. 

779.  Q.  Does  the  little,  striped  cucumber  beetle  come  out  of  the  land, 
or  do  the  seeds  of  the  cucumber  contain  the  beetle? 

A.  No,  not  out  of  the  seed,  but  from  the  earth.  Lime  and  salt,  when 
not  applied  in  too  large  a  dose,  are  beneficial.  Kainitis  good,  so  is  nitrate 
of  soda.     Don't  overdo  the  medicine. 

780.  Q.  Which  is  the  best  cabbage  for  Florida  and  the  Gulf  States,  for 
July  planting? 

A.  Reedland  Early  Drumhead,  as  it  stands  the  sun  without  burning  or 
wilting,  and  has  proved  itself  in  every  way  adapted  to  the  prevailing 
conditions  of  the  Gulf  atmosphere. 


QUERIES  AND   ANSWERS.  125 

781.  Q.  What  is  the  best  spraying  apparatus?  Spraying 
A.  We  decline  to  take  sides  on  this  question.     Many  are  the  best,  if  the  '^pp**"**'*^' 

manufacturers  are  to  be  believed.  That  one  is  good  which  throws  the 
liquid  to  a  distance  and  with  force  and  well  subdivided.  Spraying  to  do 
any  good  must  not  be  done  in  a  hurry,  but  done  efficiently.  It  must  be 
done  at  the  right  time,  and  the  mixture  correctly  prepared  and  continually 
kept  in  agitation,  that  the  parts  may  be  kept  in  a  perfect  uniformity  of 
suspension  or  admixture.  The  aim  in  spraying  should  be  to  cover  every 
leaf  with  minute  particles  of  the  fungicide  or  insecticide,  dropped  on 
them  so  lightly  as  to  remain  and  dry  there,  leaving  the  destructive  prin- 
ciple behind.  If  put  on  in  large  drops  it  runs  off  and  no  practical  results 
are  attained. 

782.  Q.  What  is  celery  blight  ?  Celery 
A.  Different  developments  of  fungi,  generally  contracted  in  the  seed  BUght. 

bed  ;  consequently  the  seed  beds  should  be  sprayed  with  Bordeaux  mix- 
ture and  the  field  plants  also,  but  not  when  approaching  maturity,  as  that 
might  be  dangerous  to  consumers.  It  is  difficult  when  the  plants  are 
large  to  treat  them,  as  the  blight  or  rot  affects  the  centre  of  the  plants. 
Less  blight  occurs  when  the  celery  is  bleached  between  boards  than  when 
bleached  by  banking  in  earth. 

788.  Q.  What  is  the  disease  or  rust  occurring  on  beans  and  known  as  Bean 
anthracnose  ?  Anthracnose. 

A.  It  is  a  parasitic  fungus  attacking  any  part  of  the  tissues  of  the  root, 
stem,  leaves  or  pods  of  either  bush  or  pole  beans.  It  appears  in  the 
forms  of  ulcers,  or  sunken  black  and  rusty  spots,  and  is  very  contagious,  a 
diseased  pod  or  leaf  quickly  inoculating  another.  For  instance,  a  basket 
of  green  pods,  some  diseased,  others  healthy,  may  in  twenty-four  hours, 
by  contagion,  all  become  diseased  during  the  period  of  transportation. 
The  disease  can  be  transferred  from  place  to  place  by  a  hoe  or  other  im- 
plement. Wet  weather  is  particularly  favorable  to  the  spread  of  this  dis- 
ease. Soaking  the  seed  beans  in  fungicides  fails  to  do  much  good — better 
results  are  attained  by  a  weak  solution  of  Bordeaux  mixture  applied  to 
the  plants  every  ten  days.  Too  m«ch  Bordeaux  mixture  dwarfs  the  bean 
plants,  or  any  other  plant. 

784.  Q.  Is  the  anthracnose  the  only  disease  affecting  beans?  Bean 

A.  No  ;  there  are  several  others,  prominent  among  which  is  a  bacterial  ■^^*^^^*^°°^* 
disease  known  as  the  bean  blight,  under  which  the  foliage  becomes 
yellow,  spotted  and  soon  dead.  Another,  known  as  the  bean  rust,  is 
the  outward  sign  of  an  attack  of  fungi  which  develops  inside  of  the  tis- 
sues of  the  leaf,  and  breaks  out  in  the  form  of  a  discharge  of  rusty  spores 
all  capable  of  reproduction.  Bordeaux  mixture  is  the  most  satisfactory 
remedy  to  keep  these  in  check.  It  will  not  stop  them  from  originating. 
The  scientific  men  have  accomplished  much  in  ferreting  out  the  character 
of  these  diseases  and  are  diligently  endeavoring  to  find  preventives,  but 
nothing  yet  has  been  found  which  might  be  termed  dead  sure  to  stop 


126 


QUERIES   AXD  ANSWERS. 


SoiliDg. 


Cantaloape. 


Cos  Lettuce. 


Watermelon. 


Long  Green 
Cucumbers. 


Earliest 
Cucumber. 


Lettuce 
Trans- 
planting. 


Ruta  Bagas. 
or 

Swedes. 


these  bean  diseases.    Of  course  the  fungi  can  be  killed,  and  so  can  the 
bean  plants. 

785.  Q.  What  is  meant  by  soiling  ? 

A.  Feeding  cattle,  kept  up  in  stalls  or  pens,  food  consisting  of  green 
stuff,  as  rye  grass,  millet  or  corn,  taken  off  in  sections  from  a  field  planted 
for  the  purpose.  To  cut  for  soiling  the  crop  is  always  grown  very  thickly 
and  it  is  fed  when  in  full  vigor  of  growth.  At  first  care  must  be  exer- 
cised or  horses  or  cattle  will  overfeed. 

786.  Q.  Which  is  the  superior  in  quality  of  cantaloupes,  those  of  green 
or  yellow  flesh  ? 

A.  As  a  rule  green-fleshed  are  the  best  in  texture  and  best  in  flavor. 
Yellow-fleshed  sorts  are  generally  tough  and  meaty — the  green  flesh 
being  more  crystalline. 

787.  Q.  Is  Cos  lettuce  treated  the  same  as  other  sorts  of  lettuce  ? 

A.  No ;  the  erect  leaves  must  be  tied  up  with  string,  straw  or  grass. 
Thus  treated  the  interior  leaves  become  blanched  to  snowy  whiteness 
and  become  brittle  as  glass.  To  those  liking  an  absolutely  pure,  white- 
leaved  lettuce  the  Cos  has  no  superior. 

788.  Q.  What  are  the  indications  of  ripeness  in  a  watermelon  ? 

A.  The  spiral,  wire  like  tendril  at  the  stem  end  of  the  melon  is  brown, 
the  white  bottom  on  the  earth  side  of  the  melon  has  become  woody,  and 
upon  gently  thumping  with  the  back  of  the  finger  nail  various  melons, 
the  sound  will  be  found  in  unripe  ones  to  be  clear  and  bell -like,  seeming 
to  run  down  and  through  the  melons,  while  in  ripe  ones  the  sound  is  dull, 
heavy  and  is  not  transmitted  through  the  melon,  because  of  a  change  in 
the  character  of  the  interior.  By  the  tapping  system  an  expert  can  dis- 
tinguish ripe  from  unripe  melons  in  an  instant. 

789.  Q.  Are  there  two  sorts  of  Long  Green  cucumbers  ? 

A.  Yes  ;  the  Long  Green  as  ordinarily  sold  and  the  Long  Green  Turkey. 
The  first  is  like  an  Early  Frame,  the  second  is  slimmer  and  twice  the 
length  of  Frame,  sometimes  twenty  inches.  The  Turkey  is  a  remarkably 
good  sort,  fine  for  pickling  green,  and  when  larger,  very  showy  as  a 
slicing  sort. 

790.  Q.  Which  is  the  earliest  long  cucumber? 

A.  The  Landreths'  First.  Not  only  early  as  the  very  short  sorts,  but 
exceedingly  long.  Not  so  long  as  a  Long  Green  Turkey,  but  two  weeks 
earlier  than  the  Turkey  and  several  days  earlier  than  Spine  or  Frame. 

791.  Q.  Is  it  necessary  to  transplant  lettuce  to  incline  it  to  head? 

A.  Not  absolutely  necessary,  but  of  decided  advantage,  as  the  tempo- 
rary check  to  vitality  and  the  deeper  setting  in  the  earth  all  conduce  to 
tiie  development  of  a  heading  tendency. 

793.  Q.  There  are  a  great  many  ruta  bagas  offered  to  planters,  which 
sort  is  the  best  ? 

A.  None  can  be  compared  to  the  Bloomsdale  Swede.  It  is  the  earliest, 
roundest,  largest,  smoothest,  best  colored  and  most  showy.    Without  any 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS.  127 

neck,  with  few  root  fibres,  and  the  best  "Winter  keeper  of  all  forms  of 
Ruta  Bagas, 

793.  Q.  I  only  want  to  cultivate  one  sort  of  cauliflower.     Which  vari- Cauliflower, 
ety  do  you  recommend  ? 

A.  The  Snowball.  Early  and  reliable  in  a  cauliflower  country.  If 
you  are  not  in  such  a  locality  it  is  not  worth  while  to  try  and  grow  them 
in  the  open  field.  Of  course  they  can  be  grown  under  glass  anywhere 
under  proper  conditions  of  treatment. 

794.  Q.  A  portion  of  my  lawn,  which  I  did  not  keep  mowed  down,  is  Sorrel. 
full  of  sorrel.     How  can  I  get  rid  of  it  ? 

A.  Broadcast  air-slacked  lime  at  the  rate  of  fifty  bushels  to  the  acre — 
the  land  is  sour — that  will  sweeten  it. 

795.  Q.  When  drilling  ruta  baga  seed,  radish,  spinach  and  other  small  Drilling. 
seeds,  should  not  the  man  pushing  the  drill  straddle  the  row  so  as  not  to 
tramp  on  the  freshly  placed  seed? 

A.  No ;  let  him  walk  right  on  top  of  the  drill  mark.  If  he  had  four  feet 
he  would  not  do  any  injury.  Where  he  tramps  the  seed  will  be  up  first 
if  the  weather  is  dry.  This  indicates  how  advantageous  rolling  is,  pro- 
vided the  ground  be  not  wet  and  provided  there  be  no  rain  for  one  or  two 
days. 

796.  Q.  Which  are  the  most  showy  varieties  of  cantaloupes  for  exhibi-  cantaloupes, 
tion  purposes  ?  Showy  Sorts. 

A.  The  Large  White  French  and  the  Large  Black  Paris.  Tested  in  the 
trial  grounds  of  the  Rural  New  Yorker,  they  were  pronounced  in  Septem- 
ber, 1894,  the  most  remarkable  ever  seen  for  size,  general  appearance, 
and  quality,  and  most  highly  recommended  to  the  public. 

797.  Q.  Which  is  the  largest  white  flat  onion  ?  Onion. 
A.  The  Bloomsdale  Pearl.     Early,  large,  flat — very  mild. 

798.  Q.  Which  spinach  will  stand  the  longest  in  the  garden  without  spi^ach. 
shooting  to  seed  ? 

A.  The  Ever  Ready  ;  the  leaves  very  thick,  dark  and  sturdy,  and  only 
shooting  to  seed  long  after  other  sorts  have  completely  dried  up. 

799.  Q.  Among  onions,  which  is  the  earliest  to  make  sets?  Onion. 
A.  The  Bermuda  Red. 

800.  Q.  My  turnip  field,  which  two  days  ago  was  fine,  the  plants  being  xurnip  Fly. 
one  inch  high  and  thick  in  the  rows,  is  to-day  all  eaten  up  by  a  black 

bug.     What  can  I  do  ? 

A.  Nothing  but  drill  another  field,  it  may  be  eaten  up  also — you  will 
have  to  run  that  risk.  The  turnip  fly,  a  jumping  beetle,  is  at  times  ex- 
ceedingly destructive,  eating  the  plants  when  from  one-tenth  to  one  inch 
high.  After  the  plants  develop  the  rough  leaf  they  are  comparatively 
safe.  There  is  no  remedy  against  this  insect,  as  it  often  destroys  the  crop 
the  day  after  hatching  out,  generally  destroying  it  before  the  insect  is 
known  to  be  present  at  all. 

801.  Q.  Is  it  best  to  spread  and  turn  under  long-strawed  barnyard  gj^j.^^.^ 
manure  in  the  Autumn,  or  pile  it  for  further  decomposition  and  for  appli-  Manure. 
cation  in  the  Spring? 


128 


QUERIES  AND  ANSWERS, 


Peat. 


Cantaloupe. 


Forcing 
Lettuces. 


Fungicides 

and 

Insecticides. 


Cabbage 
for  Autumn. 


Weeds  on 
Tennis  Court, 


"Weeds 

in  General. 


Good  Roads. 


A.  Better  pile  it  for  further  fermentation,  provided  it  be  piled  and 
attended  to  so  as  not  to  burn  or  fire-fang,  otherwise  nearly  all  the  valu- 
able properties  will  leave  it.  If  this  attention  cannot  be  given  it  better 
spread  it  and  plow  under  in  the  Fall. 

802.  Q.  Is  peat  valuable  as  a  fertilizer  ? 

A.  Yes,  to  a  small  extent ;  but  principally  as  an  alterative,  and  as  an 
aerator  to  heavier  or  lighter  soils.  It  pays  for  digging  and  hauling  on 
one's  own  farm  at  odd  times,  but  it  has  no  commercial  value. 

803.  Q.  What  do  you  consider  one  of  the  best  citrons  or  muskmelons? 
A.  The  Annie  Arundel  cantaloupe  or  muskmelon — good  size,  oval  to 

pointed,  well  ribbed,  green  in  flesh  and  of  exquisite  flavor ;  a  good  shipper. 

804.  Q.  Name  one  of  the  best  forcing  lettuces. 

A.  The  New  York  Experimental  Station  has  two  or  three  times  an- 
nounced that  Landreths'  Forcing  was  one  of  the  best.  The  Virginia 
Solid  Header  is  an  excellent  one. 

805.  Q.  Can  I  plant  my  garden  crops  with  confidence  that,  through  the 
practical  application  of  scientifically  compounded  fungicides  and  insecti- 
cides, I  will  be  assured  of  my  ability  to  keep  the  plants  healthy  ? 

A.  No ;  the  treatment  of  plant  diseases  is  met  with  at  every  turn  by 
unexpected  checks  and  unlooked-for  changes  in  conditions.  The  treat- 
ment against  insects  and  fungi  is  at  the  most  palliative.  The  scientists 
are  always  most  sanguine,  but  the  practical  farmer  and  gardener  know 
well  how  often  their  treatments  fail  to  attain  the  results  which  they  were 
so  certain  of  securing 

806.  Q.  What  is  the  best  variety  of  cabbage  for  Autumn  sowing? 

A.  For  early  Fall  the  Reedland  Early  Drumhead.  For  Winter  sow 
Market  Gardeners'  Large  Late  Plat  Dutch. 

807.  Q.  I  have  a  dirt  lawn  tennis  court  in  which  weeds  are  continually 
growing,  and  write  to  inquire  how  to  prevent  them  from  appearing  ? 

A.  Spread  a  half  bushel  of  salt  on  the  court  and  two  bushels  of  air- 
slacked  lime.  These  applications  will  destroy  weed  seeds  upon  germi- 
nating and  drive  off"  worms,  grubs  and  other  insects. 

808.  Q.  Where  do  the  weeds  come  from  ? 

A.  From  your  own  carelessness  or  that  of  your  predecessors.  Not  one- 
quarter  of  the  weed  seeds  which  ripen  upon  a  cultivated  field  germinate 
the  next  year.  Those  which  do,  are  mostly  killed,  but  those  seeds  which 
do  not  germinate  just  lay  in  the  ground  awaiting  favorable  opportunity. 
To  these  seeds  laying  dormant  are  every  year  added  a  fresh  supply,  so 
that  your  soil — all  soils — are  thoroughly  stocked  with  seeds  ready  to  spring 
into  life  under  favorable  conditions.  To  many  seeds  these  conditions  may 
not  come  for  years.  To  some  not  for  twenty  years,  but  when  the  condi- 
tions do  present  themselves  the  weeds  come  up  with  the  certainty  of  taxes. 

809.  Q.  Is  the  so-called  good  roads  agitation,  which  will  increase  the 
taxes  of  farmers,  in  their  interest  ? 

A.  Farmers  as  a  rule  are  blind  as  bats.  They  are  so  afraid  of  taxation 
as  to  stand  in  the  way  of  their  own  interests.    Farmers,  rather  than 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS.  129 

repair  a  mud  hole  at  the  county's  expense,  still  more  at  their  own,  will 
drag  along  through  it  for  weeks.  Not  only  one  hole  but  a  score,  if,  in- 
deed, the  whole  length  of  a  frequently  traveled  road  is  not  in  a  wretched 
condition — dragging  along  day  by  day,  wrenching  their  wagons,  breaking 
their  harness,  injuring  their  horses  and  souring  their  tempers.  They  are 
afraid  of  doing  something  which  may  add  to  the  comfort  of  some  one  who 
did  not  contribute  to  the  improvement.  It  is  this  penny-wise  and  pound- 
foolish  policy  which  prevents  farming  from  being  as  profitable  as  it  should 
be,  and  which  brings  ridicule  so  much  upon  the  farming  community. 

810.  Q.  What  is  the  best  shipping  watermelon  ?  Watermelon, 
A.  If  to  withstand  rough  usage  on  railroads  the  Kolb  Gem,  but  it  is  shipper. 

the  poorest  in  quality  of  any  to  be  found  in  market.  The  taste  of  the 
whole  melon-loving  community  has  been  debased  by  the  use  of  these 
miserable  Kolb  Gems.  The  best  watermelon,  all  things  considered,  is 
Arkansas  Traveler,  color,  black  green,  rind  very  tough  and  woody,  but 
extremely  thin,  flesh  deep  scarlet,  and  edible  to  within  half  an  inch  of  the 
outside,  interior  always  solid  crystalline,  exceedingly  juicy,  and  sugary  to 
the  most  remarkable  degree,  and  yet  the  rind  is  hard  as  wood,  fitting  it  to 
bear  long  transportation  and  rough  usage. 

811.  Q.  I  am  a  canner  of  peas  and  find  it  difllcult  to  put  up  a  perfectly  peas 
iiniform  grade,  in  fact  I  am  surprised  to  find  so  great  a  difference  in  the  for  Canning. 
same  variety  of  peas  ? 

A.  The  fault  is  probably  your  own.  You  possibly  do  not  buy  the 
green  pods  in  the  same  condition  one  time  with  another  ;  or  perhaps  you 
buy  too  many  at  a  time,  and  the  last  of  the  lot  before  you  get  to  it  is  hard 
and  off-color.     Don't  always  blame  the  seedsman — look  a  little  at  home. 

812.  Q.  I  want  to  put   down  a  two-acre  lot  in   grass  for  my  cows.  Pasture 
"Which  kind  or  variety  of  grass  is  the  quickest  and  most  permanent  ?  Grass. 

A.  Blue  grass  is  not  quick,  but  by  all  odds  it  is  the  best.  On  a  lime- 
stone soil  it  will  remain  good  for  fifty  years. 

813.  Q.  What  is  the  best  shipping  cantaloupe?  Cantaloupe. 
A.    Strongly    webbed    or  netted    sorts    will    stand    abrasion    during 

transportation.  This  quality,  however,  is  no  measure  of  flavor.  But 
both  for  shipping  and  eating,  none  are  superior  to  Anne  Arundel. 

814.  Q.  I  have  just  dug  my  potatoes  and  they  are  covered  with  scabs.  Potato  Scab. 
What  is  the  cause  ? 

A.  The  injury  may  be  from  several  causes  :  the  tubers  at  one  period  of 
their  growth  may  have  been  overcharged  with  juice  which  burst  the  skin, 
and  nature  endeavoring  to  heal  the  wounds  produced  scars  or  the  scabs 
may  be  the  result  of  a  fungous  growth  upon  the  skin.  This  could  have 
been  diminished  if  not  nearly  all  prevented  by  giving  the  planting  stock, 
after  cutting,  a  bath  in  corrosive  sublimate. 

815.  Q.  What  are  the  best  varieties  of  lettuce  for  Autumn  use  ?  liettuce. 
A.  Bloomsdale  Early  Summer,  Virginia  Solid  Header,  and  Reliable. 

816.  Q.  What  do  the  commercial  manure  men  mean  by  available  phos-  Phosphtai-ic 
phoric  acid  ?  Acid. 


130 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS. 


Fhosplioric 
Acid. 


Tomatoes 
Sunburned. 


Imported 
Cabbage. 


Onions 
Staggy. 


Rye,  Winter 
or  Spring  ? 


Wood  Ashes. 


A.  They  classify  phosphoric  acid  in  three  forms  :  1.  Soluble.  2.  The 
Reverted,  slightly  soluble.  3.  The  Insoluble.  The  third  gradually  be- 
comes available  to  very  slow-growing  plants,  but  it  is  not  slightly  active 
as  is  the  Reverted,  or  as  the  first,  which  is  altogether  active.  It  would 
be  best  for  purchasers  to  insist  upon  having  the  analysis  of  the  soluble 
alone,  as  distinct  not  only  from  the  Insoluble  but  also  distinct  from  the 
Reverted. 

817.  Q.  "What  is  the  matter  with  my  tomatoes?  The  sort  is  Beauty,  and 
very  large  and  perfect,  but  nearly  all  have  a  big  lemon-colored  spot  on 
one  side. 

A.  They  are  sunburned.  To  prove  it  examine  those  covered  with 
leaves,  which  you  will  find  without  the  yellow  spots.  It  is  a  good  plan  to 
sow  buckwheat  upon  a  tomato  patch  when  the  plants  first  come  into 
bloom  to  protect  the  fruit  against  sunburn. 

818.  Q.  I  bought  in  St.  Louis  three  pounds  of  so-called  Late  Flat 
Dutch  cabbage  seed,  which  in  the  bed  and  afterwards  in  the  field 
looked  all  right,  but  now  in  September  the  plants  have  lost  half  of  their 
leaves. 

A.  No  doubt  you  got  imported  seed.  Late  varieties  of  imported  cab- 
bage seed  never  do  well  in  this  country.  You  probably  bought  it  at  a 
cheap  price  and  you  have  gotten  your  reward.  The  imported  sorts  lose 
their  leaves  in  time  of  drought.  No  reliance  whatever  can  be  placed 
upon  them,  for  our  sun  is  too  hot  except  in  the  far  Northern  tier  of  States. 

819.  Q.  What  is  the  cause  of  my  onions  growing  staggy  or  stifl!"  necked. 
Is  it  the  fault  of  the  seed  or  climatic  condition  ?  The  seedsman  from  whom 
I  bought  the  seed.  Red  Wethersfield,  says  it  is  due  to  the  wet  season. 

A.  Both  wet  and  very  dry  seasons  will  tend  to  develop  the  growth  of 
stags  in  onions,  even  from  the  very  best  seed.  Too  much  moisture 
makes  them  so  rampant  they  having  no  time  to  stop  to  bulb,  and  on  the 
other  hand  a  very  dry  season  don't  develop  in  them  vital  force  enough  to 
make  bulbs ;  but  there  is  another  cause  which  often  results  in  a  staggy 
growth,  that  is  in  the  sowing  of  imported  seed  from  Italy  or  other  cheap 
sections  of  Europe.  The  market  gardener  who  purchases  cheap  onion 
seed  or  get  it  from  unproved  parties  deserves  to  have  a  crop  of  stags. 

830.  Q.  What  is  the  difl'erence  between  Winter  and  Spring  rye?  Can 
the  Spring  rye  be  used  for  sowing  in  the  Autumn  ? 

A.  Yes,  with  a  fair  prospect  of  standing  the  Winter,  if  it  be  mild.  A 
first  crop  of  Spring  rye  sown  in  the  Autumn  of  course  would  not  possess 
that  hardiness  of  constitution  which  it  could  acquire  if  the  system  was 
continued  for  several  years.  Winter  rye  sown  in  Spring  might  not  ripen, 
might  only  produce  empty  heads  on  account  of  an  iusuflicient  develop- 
ment previous  to  the  setting  in  of  hot  weather.  For  example,  Virginia 
Winter  oats  sown  in  Pennsylvania  in  April  does  very  well  but  ripens 
three  weeks  later  than  Spring  oats. 

831.  Q.  What  effect  has  the  application  of  wood  ashes  upon  lawns? 

A.  The  potash  of  wood  ashes  makes  the  grass  a  deep  green  and  strong 


QUERIES   AND  ANSWERS.  131 

in  root,  but  it  is  not  so  stimulating  to  leaf  production  as  guano  or  nitro- 
genous manure.  It  is  best  applied  in  Winter,  as  in  Summer  it  is  very 
likely  to  burn  the  leaves  of  the  grass.  Applied  in  "Winter,  1000  to  2000 
pounds  to  the  acre,  the  rains  dissolve  it  and  wash  it  into  the  soil,  where  it 
gradually  becomes  assimilable  as  plant  food  to  be  drawn  upon  for  use  in 
the  Spring  and  Summer.     It  is  quite  continuous  in  effect. 

822.  Q.  Do  local  climatic  conditions  have  much  influence  upon  the  Climatic 

.,       f.     1       .     o  Conditions 

growth  of  plants  ?  as  Affecting 

A.  It  is  both  curious  and  very  instructive  to  investigate  the  effects  of  ****n*'*' 
climate  upon  garden  vegetables  grown  from  seed.  lu  fact  a  removal  of 
but  a  few  miles  from  a  locality  is  in  some  cases  sufficient  to  produce 
marked  results,  not  because  of  a  change  of  soil,  for  that  can  be  mechani- 
cally manipulated,  at  least  on  small  patches  for  garden  purposes,  but 
entirely  because  of  change  in  atmospheric  conditions.  Thus,  for  instance. 
Long  Island  fiirmers  grow  very  profitable  crops  of  cauliflower  of  most 
inviting  form,  size  and  color,  and  with  no  more  care  than  bestowed  upon 
a  crop  of  cabbage,  whilst  no  success  whatever  can  be  expected  with  a 
field  crop  of  cauliflower  in  the  vicinity  of  Philadelphia,  only  one  hundred 
miles  distant,  even  though  the  same  seed  be  used — all  attributable 
entirely  to  a  difference  of  climatic  conditions  of  the  two  localities.  The 
influence  of  climate  is  also  observed  in  the  case  of  the  onion,  as  in  Con- 
necticut there  are  grown,  direct  from  the  seed,  thousands  of  acres  of  prof- 
itable field  crops  of  onions  unrivaled  in  form,  size  and  color,  but  the  same 
seed  sown  in  Pennsylvania  will  only  make  sets,  and  poor  ones  at  that, 
often  only  stags.  Again,  Philadelphia-grown  onion  seed  sown  in  the 
vicinity  of  Philadelphia  will  always  make  sets,  but  it  is  never  profitable 
to  make  big  bulbs,  the  climate  is  against  it ;  but  in  all  other  sections  this 
same  Philadelphia  seed  will  develop  bulbs  of  full  marketable  size. 

823.  Q.  What  is  humus,  and  is  it  of  much  value?  Humas. 
A.  It  is  a  vegetable  and  sometimes  partially  animal  mold,  and  is 

generally  a  black  powdery  substance  in  the  last  condition  of  decomposi- 
tion. It  may  have  been  wood,  straw,  leaves,  peat,  or  all  of  these  and 
more,  exposed  for  a  long  time  to  moisture  and  the  action  of  air.  A  good 
example  of  vegetable  mold  turning  to  humus  is  that  carpeting  the  ground 
in  old  forests,  a  spongy  covering  obstructing  evaporation  and  absorbing 
rain  and  snow.  Humus  is  dissipated  by  slow  combustion  in  air,  and  in 
decomposition  forms  nitric  acid.  Soils  are  fertile  in  proportion  to  the 
humus  they  contain,  and  it  preserves  them  in  a  loose  state  for  air  and 
water  to  enter  ;  the  loss  of  humus  consequently  results  in  a  drying  up  and 
hardening  of  the  soil.  It  is  valuable,  as  under  the  influence  of  microbes 
and  alkalines  the  humic  matter  is  oxydized  and  a  part  transformed  into 
nitrates.  Without  humus  in  the  soil  no  plants  of  the  legume  family,  and 
they  comprise  peas,  beans  and  clover,  can  flourish.  Possibly  the  reason 
some  soils  fail  to  grow  clover  is  because  of  the  exhaustion  of  the  humus 
in  them. 

824.  Q.  Why  is  it  that  a  large  quantity  of  onion  seed  of  European  imported 

Onion. 


132 


QUERIES  AND  ANSWERS. 


A  Seed, 
What  Is  It? 


growth  is  so  unreliable  in  this  country,  generally  making  stags  or  thick 
necks  ? 

A.  There  are  several  causes ;  many  varieties  of  high  reputation  in 
Europe  never  doing  well  south  of  Canada.  The  varieties  not  acclimated 
will  not  stand  our  semi-tropical  sun  ;  some  other  sorts  which  sometimes 
do  well  have  proved  to  be  unreliable  because  too  often  grown  in  climates 
not  favorable  to  the  retention  of  their  desired  qualities — these  causes  and 
others  result  in  stags,  bad  shapes,  mixed  forms  and  colors,  and  very 
often  disappointment,  and  loss  of  crop. 
New  825.  Q.  Are  new  sorts  of  potatoes,  developed  from  the  true  seed  col- 

Potatoes.        lected   from  seed  balls  borne  on  top  of  the  vines,  more  healthy  than 
potatoes  grown  from  the  eyes  of  tubers  of  established  sorts? 

A.  Often  so,  but  not  always.  Seeds  to  produce  healthly  plants  of  any 
kind  must  be  grown  from  healthy  plants  ;  consequently,  if  true  potato  seed 
is  picked  off  a  vine  of  a  potato  plant  which  is  unhealthy  or  running  out,  the 
seed  itself  will  be  disposed  to  run  out  or  develop  some  weakness.  But  the 
seeds  will  vary,  some  will  produce  vines  strong  and  desirable ;  but  the 
majority  from  seed  taken  from  unhealthy  plants  are  entirely  unreliable  as 
to  constitution. 
826.  Q.  What  is  a  seed  ? 

A.  A  seed  is  a  ripened  ovule,  made  vital  or  able  to  perpetuate  by  the 
mysterious  action  of  pollen  working  upon  the  female  organs  of  the 
flower  from  whence  the  seed  sprang.  Nearly  all  seeds  have  two  coats 
which  surround  the  kernel,  which  latter,  the  kernel,  may  be  the  embryo 
alone,  or  it  may  be  surrounded  by  a  protecting  and  food  substance 
termed  the  endosperm,  variably  farinaceous,  oily,  fleshy,  corneous,  or 
horny.  The  embryo  is  that  part  of  the  seed  which  starts  into  growth  and 
develops  the  young  plant,  in  fact  it  is  the  young  plant  in  miniature.  The 
location  of  the  embryo  on  the  seed  is  variable  according  to  the  species. 
In  corn  and  wheat  it  is  not  in  the  interior,  but  on  one  side  and  on  the 
surface. 
Onion  Thrip.  827.  Q.  What  can  I  do  with  my  onion  field  on  which  a  little  insect  has 
almost  destroyed  the  crop  by  eating  the  soft  bark  of  the  young  plants  ? 

A.  If  the  insect  referred  to  has  eaten  the  cuticle  of  the  leaves  so  that 
they  appear  covered  with  minute  whitish  yellow  spots  almost  touching, 
making  the  field  almost  appear  white,  it  is  the  work  of  the  onion  thrip. 
It  will  also  eat  melon,  squash,  turnip  and  a  number  of  other  plants.  Try 
solution  of  whale  oil  soap  or  kerosene  emulsion. 
"Winter  828.  Q.  In  this  part  of  Virginia  we  grow  white  Winter  wheat,  but  the 

Wheat.  millers  all  want  a  flinty  hard  sort,  and  I  want  to  know  if  I  can  profitably 

raise  far  Northern  Spring  wheats,  which  are  all  flint}^  by  sowing  them  in 
the  Autumn  ? 

A.  You  can  ;  and  it  is  being  done  in  many  localities.  They  stand  the 
Winter  when  not  very  severe,  and  the  second  year,  grown  South,  do 
better  than  the  first,  because  of  having  been  acclimated,  but  by  the  third 
season  the  grain  loses  its  flinty  quality,  becoming  mealy. 


QUERIES  AND  ANSWERS.  133 

829.  Q.  After  removing  my  cotton  crop  the  fields  became  covered  with  Green 

a  growth  of  green  stuff,  and  I  write  to  inquire  if  it  would  have  any  value  Manuring, 
as  a  green  manure? 

A.  I\Iost  certainly.  By  all  means  plow  under  the  weeds  and  grass.  To 
burn  them  is  a  most  foolish  practice.  Plowed  under  before  the  seeds 
ripen,  no  matter  what  kind  of  weed,  they  will  to  a  small  degree  fertilize 
the  earth,  and  are  valuable  in  loosening  it  so  that  air  and  moisture  can 
more  readily  penetrate  it,  and  the  roots  of  cultivated  crops  more  freely 
ramify.  The  continued  application  of  commercial  fertilizers  will  harden 
and  bake  any  land,  consequently  green  manuring  should  be  resorted 
to  whenever  possible. 

830.  Q.  What  is  the  average  percentage  of  the  vitality  of  farm  seeds  ?     Seed  vitality. 
A.  The  government  of  Switzerland  has  established  a  Seed   Control 

Station  at  Zurich,  and  during  the  year  1892  made  nearly  6000  official 
tests  of  vitality.     The  average  was,  of 

Red  Clover 88  per  cent. 

White  Clover 77 

Alsike  Clover 78 

Orchard  Grass 81 

Fox  Tail .63 

Blue  Grass 55 

The  Austrian  Seed  Control  Station  in  1892,  paying  special  attention  to 
the  subject  of  Sugar  Beet  seed,  established  an  official  standard  of  80  per 
cent,  of  germinating  clumps  as  indicative  of  excellence. 

831.  Q.  Are  all  the  vegetable  oils  of  the  same  nature?  Vegetable 
A.  No  ;  they  nearly  all  differ,  and  are  distinct  in  turn  from  the  essential  **'^** 

oils  of  the  same  plants,  the  essential  oils  being  all  volatile.  Fixed  fats 
and  oils  are  found  in  many  agricultural  seeds,  notably  in  rape,  or  colza, 
flax,  hemp,  cotton,  castor  beans  and  peanuts.  All  these  contain  from 
10  to  50  per  cent,  of  expressable  oil.  The  essential  oils  are  obtained  by 
boiling  and  distillation,  and  it  is  these  oils  which  give  the  odor  to  plants. 

832.  Q.  My  attention  has  been  called  to  the  condition  of  the  leaves  of  Mining  Flies. 
my  beets  and  radishes,  all  of  which  are  channeled  out  or  mined  by  some 

worm.     How  can  I  stop  it? 

A.  The  injury  is  done  by  the  larvae  of  some  one  of  the  mining  flies. 
There  is  no  remedy  to  apply  to  the  present  crop.  The  only  course  is  to 
attempt  to  destroy  the  insects  after  they  drop  to  the  earth  to  remain  all 
Winter.     This  may  be  partially  done  by  oil,  salt,  lime. 

833.  Q.  Have  you  a  table  giving  the  number  of  plants  to  the  acre  of  Plants 
those  sorts  of  garden  vegetables  which  are  usually  or  sometimes  started  ***  Acre. 
under  glass  for  transplantation  into  open  ground  ? 

A.  The  number  of  plants  set  to  an  acre  depends  on  the  distance  be- 
tween the  rows  and  the  spaces  between  the  plants  in  rows,  some  market 


134 


QUERIES  AND  ANSWERS. 


Orig^in  of 
some   Double 
Flowers. 


Soil 
£xhaustion. 


Loss  of 

Soil 

Fertility. 


Koots, 

Various 

ICiuds. 


gardeners  setting  more  than  twice  as  many  as  others,  dependent  upou 
strength  of  soil.     The  following  is  an  approximation  of  the  quantities  : 

Cabbage 10,000 

Cauliflower 10,000 

Pepper 7,000 

Tomatoes 3,000 

Egg  Plant 3,000 

834.  Q.  How  do  gardeners  obtain  double  flowers  of  ornamental  plants? 
A.  A  double  flower  is  one  in  which  some  or  all  of  the  stamens  or  pistils 

are  changed  to  petals  or  flower  leaves,  or  a  flower  in  which  the  normal 
number  of  flower  leaves  is  greatly  increased.  The  change  results  in  the 
loss  of  power  in  the  plant  to  develop  seed.  It  is  often  entirely  brought 
about  by  starvation  of  the  growing  plant,  sometimes  by  debility  in  the 
seed,  a  consequence  of  age  or  exposure. 

835.  Q.  What  proof  is  there  that  plants  exhaust  the  soil  ? 

A.  A  good  proof  is  that  the  soil  in  pots  or  tubs  is  exhausted  by  plants 
remaining  in  the  pots  or  tubs  for  a  considerable  time,  the  effect  being 
smaller  foliage  and  flowers,  and  weak  branches.  As  these  conditions  can 
be  relieved  by  the  application  of  manure  it  is  clearly  demonstrable  that 
the  soil  was  exhausted. 

836.  Q.  How  do  soils  become  exhausted  ? 

A.  Partially  by  the  loss  of  nitrogen  in  the  soil.  Large  amounts  of 
nitrogen  are  lost  by  natural  soil  drainage,  the  rains  carrying  down  the 
nitrogen  to  a  depth  beneath  the  reach  of  roots.  This  especially  occurs  on 
fields  not  covered  with  crops,  for  when  so  covered  the  crop  evaporation 
keeps  water  up  near  the  soil,  but  when  bare  the  water  sinks,  taking  the 
nitrogen  down.  This  is  one  argument  for  catch  crops,  that  is,  temporary 
crops,  quick  growers,  as  Scarlet  clover,  or  Cow  peas.  These  cover  the 
ground,  stopping  drainage,  and  the  leeching  away  of  nitrogen,  and  if  the 
catch  crops  are  well  selected  they  add  more  nitrogen  through  their 
growth.  Nitrogen  also  becomes  exhausted  partially  through  a  diminution 
in  humus,  which  by  a  chemical  action  and  change  aff'ords  nitric  nitrogen. 
Nitrogen,  however,  is  not  the  only  food  constituent  which  subsoil  drain- 
age removes,  for  there  may  be  a  loss  of  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  also. 

837.  Q.  What  are  the  names  and  distinctions  of  the  fleshy,  earthy 
stems  of  plants  ? 

A.  They  are  all  classed  as  roots,  but  they  are  distinguished  from  roots 
proper  by  producing  regular  buds  or  bearing  scars  indicating  formed 
leaves.  A  rhizom  is  a  thickened  starchy  root  stem,  as  illustrated  by  the 
calamus  or  by  the  wire  grass.  A  tuber  is  an  enlargement  of  a  bud  of  an 
underground  stem  illustrated  by  the  white  potato.  All  tubers  are  rich 
in  starch.  A  bulb  half  in  and  half  out  of  ground  is  an  abbreviated  stem, 
formed  of  the  basis  of  thickened  leaves  termed  scales,  illustrated  by  the 
onion.  Bulblets  are  small  bulbs  oflTset  from  large  bulbs,  often  seen  on 
the  outside  of  hyacinths.     Corms  are  like  bulbs  but  solid  or  without 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS.  135 

scales.  Roots,  a  term  so  frequently  used  in  agriculture,  indicate  those 
solid  fleshy  portions  of  plants  ■which  grow  partly  in  and  partly  out  of 
ground,  as  beets,  turnips,  or  carrots.  The  out-of-ground  and  underground 
portions  of  beets  have  somewhat  distinct  characteristics.  Nitrogenous 
materials  are  more  concentrated  in  the  underground  parts,  while  sugar  is 
found  mostly  in  the  above-ground  portions. 

838.  Q.  Why  do  the  flowers  of  some  garden  vegetables  retain  their  Retention  of 
freshness  so  much  longer  than  others?  Freshness. 

A.  Some  plants  pollenize  much  easier  than  others,  and  nature  seems  to 
give  a  physical  strength  to  certain  flowers  to  retain  their  freshness  while 
awaiting  pollination.  It  has  been  observed  that  quick-withering  flowers 
retain  their  freshness  for  unusual  periods  if  not  pollenized,  seemingly 
awaiting  the  event  for  which  they  were  created,  but  as  soon  as  the  pollen 
grains  touch  the  pistils  the  flowers  immediately  lose  their  freshness. 

839.  Q.  In  the  case  of  turnip  seed,  is  new  crop  better  than  old  crop?  Turnip  Seed. 
A.  If  the  old  crop  is  not  older  than  one  year  and  was  well  harvested 

and  since  well  kept,  it  is  as  good  as  new — in  fact  better,  as  it  will  sprout 
more  uniformly,  being  more  susceptible  to  a  slight  degree  of  moisture. 
New  crop  turnip  with  some  persons  seems  to  have  a  charm,  but  it  comes 
in  late,  seldom  ready  before  the  lOlh  of  July,  and  what  is  gained  in  vital- 
ity is  lost  by  delay  in  planting.  Of  course  two-thirds  of  what  turnip 
seed  is  sold  as  new  crop  is  old  crop  ;  not  always  of  the  preceding  year, 
however,  for  sometimes  it  is  old  enough  to  vote. 

840.  Q.  Is  there  any  way  besides  trapping  by  which  I  can  rid  my  farm  Moles. 
of  ground  moles? 

A.  Try  injecting  into  the  mole  runs,  at  distances  often  feet  apart,  a  gill 
of  liquid  bisulphide  of  carbon  ;  the  poisonous  fumes  may  kill  the  moles  or 
drive  them  away.  Another  remedy  worth  trying  is  to  place  small  pieces 
of  meat  with  strychnine  upon  it  in  the  runs. 

841.  Q.  Is  there  any  standard  weight  for  a  bushel  of  onion  sets  ?  standard 
A.  No  ;  and  there  cannot  be,  for  the  reason  that  sets  vary  in  weight  ac-  Weight. 

cording  to  size  and  density,  and  they  decrease  in  weight  constantly  from 
time  of  harvest  to  time  of  planting,  which  may  be  a  period  of  six  months. 
The  only  fair  and  just  way  of  selling  onion  sets  is  by  the  bushel,  and  they 
should  be  sold  by  a  stroke  bushel,  for  that  measure  is  the  same  every- 
where, a  heaped  or  rounded  bushel  varying  more  or  less  according  to  the 
spirit  of  the  measurer. 

842.  Q.  What  is  the  Irish  shamrock  ?  Shamrock 
A.  It  is  the  White  Dutch  clover,  common  everywhere.                               WhiteClover. 

843.  Q.  A  friend  in  Brazil  sent  me  some  watermelon  seeds  from  fruit  „ 

-L        •      T-.  Foreign 

said  to  be  the  best  m  Rio,  but  upon  trial  I  find  them  little  better  than  seed. 

pumpkins? 

A.  Just  the  experience  of  every  one.  The  writer  has  repeatedly  got 
the  best  of  sorts  of  all  seeds  from  South  America,  and  they  seldom  prove 
of  any  value  in  Pennsylvania  because  of  the  change  in  climatic  con- 
ditions. 


136 


QUERIES  AND   ANSWERS. 


Latitude 
Affecting 
Garden 
Seeds. 


Pollination  of     844.  Q.  How  do  Water  plants  growing  under  water  eflfect  the  pollina 
Water  Plants  tjon  of  their  flowers  ? 

A.  Sometimes  the  male  flowers  are  borne  on  short  stems,  and  when 
perfected  detach  themselves  and  rise  to  the  surface,  where  they  meet  the 
female  flowers.  At  other  times  they  are  borne  on  long  stems  rising  to 
the  surface.  The  female  flowers  are  always  borne  on  long  stems  or 
peduncles  reaching  to  the  surface  of  the  water  where  the  pollination  only 
takes  place.  As  a  rule  water  plants  will  only  grow  where  the  flower 
stems  can  reach  the  surface. 

845.  Q.  What  latitude  or  climate  is  best  suited  for  the  production  of 
garden  seeds 

A.  It  is  well-known  that  garden  peas  do  best  under  the  atmospheric 
influence  of  the  Great  Lakes,  as  along  the  Canadian  shores  of  Lakes 
Ontario  and  Erie,  and  along  the  American  shores  of  the  same  lakes,  or 
within  the  influence  of  lake  air.  Sugar  corn,  on  the  other  hand,  grown  in 
New  England  has  long  been  proverbial  for  its  high  sugary  qualities  and 
retention  of  type,  qualities  which  it  loses  in  the  West,  the  sugar  corn  grown 
there  becoming  thicker  and  altogether  larger  and  more  mealy  in  the 
grain,  instead  of  retaining  its  qualities  of  lightness,  and  corneous,  and 
oily  character.  Vegetables  for  the  production  of  small  seeds  develop  best 
in  the  sections  indicated  by  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania  and  New  York,  as 
there  the  full  flavor  of  the  vegetable  is  retained,  and  outward  appearances 
of  the  seed  stock  remain  unchanged,  which  is  not  the  case  when  the  same 
vegetables  are  grown  on  the  richer  soils  of  the  West.  The  West  produces 
very  showy  mammoth  vegetables,  but  Eastern  seeds  grown  on  slower 
soils  are  more  true  in  their  disposition.  The  district  referred  to,  styled  by 
the  Census  Bureau  the  "Pennsylvania  District,"  has  a  better  climate  for 
the  full  perfection  and  full  retention  of  typical  qualities  of  shape,  size, 
color,  flavor,  as  its  climate  is  very  favorable  to  insuring  perfect  pollina- 
tion, consequently  a  higher  vitality  in  the  seeds  than  from  districts 
farther  North,  South,  or  West. 

846.  Q.  Is  there  a  seed  adulteration  law  in  the  United  States,  as  in 
England? 

A.  No  ;  but  there  should  be  to  prevent  like  frauds  as  held  in  check — 
only  in  partial  check,  however — by  the  English  law  which  was  passed 
about  1870,  and  which  laid  heavy  penalties  for  adulteration  with  dead 
seeds.  Before  that  date  it  was  a  common  practice  in  England  when  seeds 
fell  in  vitality  to  a  percentage  too  low  to  sell,  to  roast  them  in  kilns  to  de- 
stroy all  remaining  vitality.  Kilns  for  such  purposes  were  established  in 
various  parts  of  England,  and  they  did  a  thriving  business.  Any  kind  of 
turnip,  cabbage,  radish,  beet,  or  other  seed  of  no  value,  because  of 
low  vitality,  could  be  killed  and  mixed  with  some  high-priced  variety  of 
the  same  family,  thus  lowering  the  cost  of  the  whole.  In  the  case  of 
clover,  quartz  rock  was  ground  into  sand,  graded  to  size,  colored  like 
clover,  and  used  as  an  adulterant  of  clover.  While  the  English  law  pro- 
hibits the  sales  of  adulterated  seed  in  England,  there  is  no  law  to  prevent 
adulterated  seed  being  sent  to  America. 


Adulteration 
of  Seeds. 


QUERIE3   AND  ANSWERS.  137 

847.  Q.  What  can  I  do  to  eradicate  the  wild  carrot  ?  Wild  Carrot. 
A.  Pulling  up  the  plant  or  cutting  off  below  the  surface  of  the  ground  is 

the  only  remedy. 

848.  Q.  What  are  the  merits  of  Dwarf  Essex  rape?  Essex  Rape. 
A.  It  is  a  good,  healthy,  broad-foliaged,  palatable  plant  for  feeding  cattle 

or  sheep,  producing  twenty  to  thirty  tons  of  green  stuff  to  the  acre.  It 
grows  three  feet  high,  and  is  highly  recommended,  especially  for  sheep 
feeding.  It  covers  the  surface  so  densely  as  to  smother  out  all  weeds  and 
to  kill  twitch  or  quack  grass.  It  should  be  sown  in  drills  or  rows  at 
twenty- four  to  thirty  inches  apart,  and  at  the  rate  of  two  pounds  to  the 
acre. 

849.  Q.  What  is  the  substance  termed  pollen  ?  Pollen. 
A.  Taken  as  a  whole,  it  may  be  described  as  a  dust  of  microscopic 

parts  or  grains  of  defined  shape,  varying  according  to  the  family  of  plants 
producing  it.  It  is  the  vitalizing  portion  from  the  male  organ  of  a  plant, 
and  is  intended  by  nature  to  be  brought  into  contact  with  the  female 
organs  of  flowers,  which  occurs  by  its  falling  upon  them,  or  by  being  car- 
ried by  insects.  It  retains  its  vitality  for  varying  periods,  in  some  cases 
but  for  a  day,  in  other  cases  for  months.  It  can  be  carried  by  the  wind 
for  many  miles  and  thus  produce  many  curious  hybridizations.  When  a 
grain  of  pollen  reaches  the  mouth  of  the  pistil,  which  is  frequently  moist, 
the  pollen  grain  immediately  develops  a  long  tube  which  penetrates,  seem- 
ingly by  some  mysterious  instinct,  the  pistil  no  matter  what  its  length,  till 
it  reaches  its  base,  when  some  hidden  operation  occurs  necessary  to  the 
development  of  seed  which  will  perpetuate  the  species.  The  passage  of 
the  above-described  tube  from  the  lip  of  the  pistil  down  to  the  ovules  at 
its  base  may  occur  in  a  few  minutes,  or  may  take  days,  or  weeks,  accord- 
ing to  the  species  of  plant.  Sometimes  the  distance  is  equal  to  9000  times 
the  diameter  of  the  pollen  grain,  a  familiar  example  being  found  in  the 
long  silky  threads  of  corn  sometimes  nearly  two  feet  in  length.  Pollen 
grains  are  produced  in  great  numbers,  often  a  single  flower  producing 
100,000  grains.  It  is  calculated  that  the  pollen  produced  on  an  acre  of 
wheat  amounts  to  fifty  pounds. 

850.  Q.  What  is  the  influence  of  size  and  weight  of  seed  upon  the  Seed  as  to 

growth  of  plants  ?  Size  and 

A.  Full  plump  seeds  will  generally  sprout  quicker  than  smaller  seeds  ^  ***"*^* 
of  the  same  kind,  and  seeds  under  size  will  generally  produce  weaker 
plants  than  those  from  plump  heavy  seed,  but  plants  from  the  small  seeds 
will  generally  be  found  to  mature  a  degree  earlier  and  occasionally  be 
quite  as  productive.  The  plants  from  the  plump  seeds  will  generally  be 
more  vigorous  in  foliage,  as  they  obtain  a  better  start  immediately  after 
germination. 

851.  Q.  Down  here  I  cannot  obtain  all  the  stable  manure  I  require  and  commercial 
want  to  know  what  you  consider  the  best  commercial  fertilizer?  Fertilizers. 

A.  As  there  are  over  1000  brands  of  commercial  fertilizers  made  in  the 
United  States,  it  is  impossible  to  say  what  is  best,  for  so  many  are  good, 


138 


QUERIES  AND   ANSWERS. 


Barnyard. 


Cockle. 


Germination 
Cause. 


Clover  Seed. 


Watermelon  s 


Nitrogen 
Source. 


and  so  much  of  value  depends  on  costs  of  freight.  In  your  locality  the 
best  is  that  one  which  produces  the  most  telling  effect  for  the  least  outlay 
of  cash,  and  that  information  you  can  best  get  by  conferring  with  your 
neighbors,  for  their  experience  is  far  more  practical  than  anything  the 
writer  can  suggest  without  a  knowledge  of  your  soil  conditions. 

852.  Q.  How  many  loads  of  barnyard  manure  should  I  put  on  my  gar- 
den of  one  acre,  and  when  should  I  apply  it  ? 

A.  Seven  to  ten  tons  to  the  acre  broadcasted  in  the  Spring  and  plowed 
under  as  soon  as  spread.  Barnyard  manure  so  old  and  rotten  as  to  be 
short  like  compost  is  already  reduced  to  half  its  value,  and  on  the  other 
hand  when  so  long  as  to  be  like  straw  is  but  of  half  value. 

853.  Q.  How  can  I  prevent  cockle  in  wheat? 

A.  Sow  clean  seed,  or  if  you  cannot  purchase  absolutely  clean  seed 
make  it  so  by  sieving,  riddling,  or  hand  picking.  Of  the  crop  grown 
from  this  seed  take  a  portion  of  a  field,  one  to  twenty  acres,  as  may  be  re- 
quired, and  pull  out  by  hand  every  cockle  plant,  and  cut;  off  every  head 
of  rye  till  the  stock  is  uniformly  pure. 

854.  Q.  What  causes  seeds  to  germinate  ? 

A.  Moisture  and  temperature  supplemented  by  oxygen.  Of  moisture 
various  amounts  are  required,  most  seeds  requiring  an  absorption  of  over 
their  weight  in  water.  Some  must  be  completely  soaked  in  water,  and 
others  only  have  the  smallest  quantity.  Moisture  penetrates  the  seed, 
swells  the  albumen,  dissolves  dextrine,  and  is  the  vehicle  which  conveys 
nutrition  to  the  young  plant  in  the  seed.  Of  temperature  there  is  an 
equal  variation.  Wheat  will  sprout  45^  F.,  but  the  most  favorable  range 
of  vegetable  seeds  is  from  75°  to  90°.  Peas  and  onion  seed  will  sprout  at 
a  moderate  temperature.  Beans  and  melon  seeds  require  a  high  tempera- 
ture. Low  temperature  retards  the  formation  of  lateral  rootlets,  buds 
and  leaves.  A  high  temperature  causes  their  rapid  development.  Oxygen 
appears  to  be  necessary  to  sprouting  seeds  to  change  the  starch  into  dex- 
trine and  then  into  sugar.  The  oxygen  is  obtained  both  from  the  air  and 
the  water. 

855.  Q.  How  much  clover  seed  is  annually  saved  in  the  United  States? 
A.  The  late  Census  report  gives  the  clover  crop  as  2,753,000  bushels 

annually,  and  the  grass  seed  crop  in  the  aggregate  as  3,000,000  bushels. 

856.  Q.  My  watermelons  all  have  big  round  brown  spots  on  top,  most 
seriously  injuring  their  salable  qualities.     What  is  the  cause  ? 

A.  Sunburn.  Next  year  broadcast  buckwheat  before  the  vines  come 
into  bloom.  By  the  time  the  melons  are  ripe  the  buckwheat  will  have 
risen  above  them,  partially  protecting  from  the  sun. 

857.  Q.  How  do  soils  obtain  nitrogen  from  the  air? 

A.  It  is  theorized — really  believed — that  a  part  of  the  free  nitrogen  of  the 
air  enters  into  the  cycle  of  plant  growth  through  the  agency  of  bacteroids, 
the  product  of  miscroscopic  organisms.  The  cryptogamic  plants  on  or 
near  the  surfoce  of  the  soil,  flourishing  more  on  damp  soils  than  on  dry, 
collect  and  assimilate  ammonia  to  an  extent  about  equal  to  the  amount 


QUERIE3   AND  ANSWERS.  139 

present  in  the  soil  before  their  growth.  There  is  a  continuous  loss  of 
nitrogen  in  the  soil,  not  alone  through  the  demand  upon  it  by  cultivated 
plants,  but  by  leeching  down,  or  by  natural  soil  drainage  and  by  evapora- 
tion. 

858.  Q.  On  my  farm  are  lots  of  wild  parsnip  infested  at  seed  time  with  Web  Worm, 
a  web  insect.    It  may  get  on  other  plants.     How  can  I  destroy  it  ? 

A,  It  is  almost  impossible  to  destroy  this  worm.  Tlie  writer  has  tried 
everything  to  save  patches  of  twenty  acres  of  parsnip  at  a  time  and  with- 
out success.  Your  best  plan  is  to  mow  off  the  parsnips  before  they  shoot 
to  seed  and  thus  starve  out  the  insect. 

859.  Q.  In  1894  I  bought  from  your  house  1500  pounds  of  Jersey  encumber 
pickle  cucumber  and  drilled  nearly  all  of  it,  getting  a  crop  as  fine  as^*"**^**"' 
respects  form  and  productiveness  as  ever  seen  in  this  locality.    This  Spring 

I  drilled  what  seed  I  had  left  over,  about  300  pounds,  and  cannot  recog- 
nize the  product  as  from  the  same  seed,  but  I  know  it  was,  and  write  for 
an  explanation. 

A.  Climatic  altogether,  the  type  or  strain  is  just  the  same,  but  the  con- 
ditions of  growth  have  been  different :  more  or  less  rain  or  drought,  cold 
or  heat ;  a  variation  in  the  degree  of  vivifying  sunshine ;  more  or  less 
fertility  of  soil,  influenced  in  both  cases  by  preceding  crops  ;  insect,  or 
fungous  ravages  above  or  under  ground ;  variations  in  periods  of  drill- 
ing— all  these  and  as  many  more  influences  determine  results. 

860.  Q.  What  manure  should  I  apply  to  my  onion  crop  ?    I  can't  get  Manure 
stable  dung.  for  Onions. 

A.  Previous  to  drilling  the  onion  seed,  broadcast  400  to  500  pounds  to 
the  acre  of  dried  blood,  dried  meat,  or  flsh,  or  guano,  to  give  ammonia  or 
nitrogen  ;  and  500  to  600  pounds  wood  ashes  to  the  acre,  to  give  potash. 
Superphosphate  is  not  so  necessary  as  the  nitrogen  and  potash,  which 
makes  tissue  ;  for  where  grain  or  other  seed  is  not  in  view,  phosphoric 
acid  is  not  demanded  so  much  as  the  other  two  components  of  vege- 
table food. 

861.  Q.  I  have  two  lots  of  seed  of  Zig  Zag  Adams  Early  Table  corn,  corn 

one  grown  in  Pennsylvania,  the  other,  a  far  better  looking  sample,  grown  Variation. 
in  Illinois.     Why  is  this? 

A.  Exactly  so.  The  rich  soil  of  the  West  will  always  produce  the  most 
showy  grain,  the  largest  and  heaviest  ears,  the  tallest  stocks,  but  all  at 
the  sacrifice  of  earliness.  If  you  want  a  horse  corn  get  seed  off  of  prairie 
soil,  but  if  you  want  an  Early  Table  corn  get  it  off  of  the  older  soils  of 
the  East. 

862.  Q.  How  big  do  you  grow  watermelons  in  Jersey  ?  Watermelon 
A.  The  writer  has  seen  them  of  100  pounds,  but  such  are  unsalable.  Size. 

No  one  will  take  a  hundred-pounder  as  a  gift,  and  anything  over  fifty 
pounds  sells  slowly  because  the  experienced  one  knows  that  it  is  coarse  in 
flesh.  The  forty-pounder  is  big  enough  for  any  one  family.  Big  things 
in  vegetables  are  never  the  best.  Don't  be  influenced  by  size — look  for 
quality. 


140 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS. 


Potato  863.  Q.  Some  worm  is  in  the  stalks  of  my  potato  patch  boring  them 

stem  Borer.    fj-Qm  end  to  end  so  that  they  are  drying  up.     What  can  I  do  ? 

A.  You  can't  do  anything.  The  pest  is  most  likely  a  grub  known  as 
the  potato  stem  borer,  a  worm  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  long.  They 
begin  their  work  in  June  and  frequently  eat  out  the  entire  heart  of  the 
stems.  Of  course  they  reduce  the  crop,  and  there  is  no  remedy  known  to 
destroy  the  grub  while  working  within  the  stem.  After  harvest  burn  all 
potatoes  vines  and  everything  else  upon  the  field. 

Shallots.  864.  Q.  In  what  way  does  a  shallot  differ  from  an  onion? 

A.  A  shallot  seldom  produces  seed,  and  its  bulbs  when  planted  divide 
into  a  number  of  cloves  which  remain  attached  to  a  common  disc,  and 
finally  become  as  large  as  the  original  bulb.  The  true  shallot  grows  about 
an  inch  in  diameter,  is  pale  gray,  and  is  much  elongated,  but  there  is  a 
bastard  form  nearly  round. 

Potato  Onion     865.  Q.  In  what  way  does  the  Potato  onion  differ  from  the  usual  form 
of  onion  ? 

A.  It  does  not  produce  either  seed  or  bulblets,  and  is  only  propagated 
by  cloves  formed  underground,  same  as  in  the  case  of  the  shallot.  If 
well-developed  cloves  are  planted  in  September,  fair-sized  edible  onions 
may  be  harvested  in  April,  but  if  left  in  the  ground  several  weeks  longer 
the  bulbs  will  split,  producing  many  small  ones,  the  largest  of  these  in 
time  producing  cloves,  the  smallest  forming  edible  bulbs.  Potato  onions 
are  very  diflicult  to  keep  when  taken  out  of  the  ground,  as  they  decay 
rapidly. 

866.  Q.  Describe  the  difference  between  Top  onions  and  ordinary 
onions. 

A.  Top  onions  of  large  size  are  grown  from  sets  or  bulblets  produced 
the  preceding  year  on  the  top  of  high  stalks  sent  up  from  large  onions. 
There  are  two  forms,  those  producing  bulbs  with  one  heart  and  those 
of  three  to  five  hearts.  Only  the  form  producing  the  single-hearted 
bulblet  is  valuable,  the  others  splitting  up  into  many  undersized  plants 
which  never  reach  a  good  size  and  seldom  ripen  down  their  tops.  The 
single-hearted  sort  is  worth  three  times  the  price  of  those  having  divided 
hearts,  which  are  next  to  valueless  except  as  scullions. 

867.  Q.  How  does  garlic  differ  from  the  onion  ? 

A.  The  garlic  bulb,  which  is  pungent  and  strong  in  flavor,  is  a  com- 
pound one,  comprised  of  six  or  more  cloves  within  a  membranous  skin 
or  envelope,  generally  white  or  rose  color.  It  is  propagated  by  cloves 
produced  on  the  top  of  high  seed  stalks  after  the  style  of  the  Top  onion. 

868.  Q.  What  is  the  distinction  between  a  leek  and  an  onion  ? 
A.  An  onion  is  bred  to  develop  the  edible  portion  as  a  round  or  a  flat 

bulb,  but  in  a  leek  the  plant  has  been  bred  to  develop  numerous  thick 
leaves,  enveloping  one  another  at  the  base  and  for  a  considerable  distance 
above  it,  forming  a  thick  fleshy  neck  of  edible  quality.     Tlie  leek  pro- 
duces black  seed  similar  to  onion  seed. 
Corn,  gg9    Q    Is  "White  Flint  corn  of  any  use  except  for  hominy  purposes  ? 

"White  Flint. 


Top  Onion. 


Garlic. 


liOek. 


QUERIES  AND   ANSWERS.  141 

A.  Very  valuable  for  making  a  white  meal  ;  also  excellent  for  stable 
use  as  a  feed  corn.  It  is  a  sort  early,  bard,  a  good  ripener  and  a  fine 
keeping  variety.  All  Flint  corns  are  very  nutritious,  as  they  contain 
much  oil. 

870.  Q.  How  late  can  I  plant  Sugar  corn  with  a  reasonable  certainty  of  Sugar  Oorn, 
making  a  crop  of  roasting  ears — and  what  is  the  best  variety  for  this  pur-  ^***  Planting 
pose?    We  have  fro^t  October  15th  to  20th. 

A.  The  special  variety  known  as  Landreths'  Sugar  corn  will  mature 
when  planted  in  the  Spring  in  about  eighty  days  from  germination  ;  but 
sown  for  an  autumn  crop  it  does  not  develop  so  rapidly,  as  the  rainfall 
and  temperature  of  the  nights  are  not  so  forcing,  the  plant  taking  quite 
ten  or  fifteen  days  more  to  develop  edible  ears.  In  May  and  June 
Spring-planted  corn  grows  with  great  rapidity,  but  under  the  cooler 
nights  of  September  it  almost  stops  growing  at  night,  while  early  in  the 
year  an  early  crop  does  nearly  all  its  growing  at  night.  Therefore,  to 
ripen  for  table  by  the  15th  of  October,  it  will  be  necessary  to  plant  about 
the  15th  of  July.  A  quicker  but  smaller  sort  is  the  Crosby,  which  might 
be  planted  as  late  as  the  25th  of  July. 

871.  Q.  Which  is  the  flower  of  Indian  corn,  that  on  top  of  the  stalk  or  Tassel 
that  on  the  end  of  the  ear  ?  of  Com. 

A.  Both.  That  on  the  top  of  the  stalk,  called  the  tassel,  is  the  male 
flower ;  that  at  the  end  of  the  ear  called  the  silk,  is  the  female.  This 
latter  is  composed  of  filaments  or  long  silky  hairs  extending  from  each 
grain  to  the  outside  of  the  husk  of  the  ear;  Some  of  these  threads  are  often 
eighteen  inches  long.  Each  thread  or  hair  has  an  opening  or  a  mouth  to 
receive  the  invisible  pollen  from  the  male,  and  unless  each  thread  so  re- 
ceives a  grain  of  pollen  no  seed  possessing  a  vital  germ  or  full-size  will 
develop  on  the  spot  to  which  the  thread  is  attached.  It  is  estimated  that 
the  male  flowers  orcorn  are  so  fertile  in  pollea  as  to  produce  nine  thou- 
sand pollen  grains  to  each  thread  of  silk — yet  only  one  grain  is  needed  to 
each  thread. 

872.  Q.  I  am  too  far  away  from  a  big  town  to  obtain  large  quantities  Stable 
of  stable  manure,  and  inquire  if  I  can  manufacture  anything  to  take  its  Manure. 
place  ? 

A.  Yes  ;  keep  pigs.  Keep  them  in  pens,  numerous  pens,  that  they  can 
be  changed  from  one  to  the  other  ;  those  adjoining  a  barnyard  not  too  big, 
say  30  by  90  feet,  with  an  adjoining  field  of  one  to  two  acres,  in  which 
they  can  run  in  occasionally  for  exercise,  and  while  the  pens  and  yards  are 
being  cleaned.  Do  not  let  them  run  wild,  but  keep  them  in  closely  de- 
fined enclosures.  Into  the  barnyard,  which  should  be  dished  to  the 
centre  to  hold  water,  dump  all  kinds  of  manure-making  material,  as 
straw,  corn  fodder,  weeds,  leaves  from  the  woods,  swamp  muck,  saw- 
dust, anything  that  will  decompose  or  hold  fertilizing  liquids.  Do  not 
let  any  of  the  manurial  juices  run  away.  Into  the  yard  dump  materials 
hauled  in  so  that  the  pigs  will  tramp  them  down  and  root  them  over  and 
over.     Frequently  fork  them  over,  and  at  the  end  of  six  months  it  will  be 


142 


QUERIES   AND  ANSWERS. 


Ranners  in 
Feas  and 
Beans. 


surprising  how  much  exceedingly  valuable  material  has  been  accumu- 
lated. Experience  on  Virginia  plantations,  so  located  that  stable  manure 
cannot  be  obtained,  prompts  these  remarks,  as  150  pigs  kept  in  three 
barnyards  have  annually  produced  an  immense  quantity  of  exceedingly 
valuable  manure.  The  value  of  the  meat  of  the  pigs  should  more  than 
pay  for  their  feed,  the  manure  being  all  profit.  Of  course  such  a  piggery 
should  be  kept  distant  from  the  farmer's  dwelling  on  account  of  offensive 
smells  and  flies. 

873.  Q.  What  causes  runners  in  peas  and  beans? 

A.  Sometimes  perfectly  true  types  of  peas  and  beans  will  send  up  what 
appear  to  be  running  tendrils,  or  will  produce  what  appear  to  be  late 
vines,  both  due  to  the  accidental  location  of  some  seeds  over  lumps  of 
manure,  or  due  to  the  conditions  of  deep  or  shallow  rooting,  or  to  a  rainy 
season,  all  these  being  purely  accidental  fluctuations  in  the  apparent 
character  of  the  stock.  Runners,  however,  are  generally  due  to  an  unse- 
lected  stock,  to  a  bad  strain  of  blood.  All  peas  and  beans,  if  neglected, 
will  become  partially  wild  or  rampant.  They  can  only  be  kept  within 
prescribed  limits  by  constantly  throwing  out  all  vines  in  which  any  indi- 
cation of  a  departure  from  the  true  type  is  observable.  A  disposition  to 
grow  wild  is  inherent  in  all  types  of  peas  and  beans,  just  as  it  is  in  the 
human  system ;  and  when  not  checked  by  selection,  that  disposition 
develops  so  rapidly  as  to  completely  change  the  character  of  the  stock  in 
three  or  four  years. 
Germination.  874.  Q.  In  planting  garden  seeds  of  various  kinds  I  sometimes  find  that 
seed  from  the  same  package  planted  at  different  dates  gives  varying 
results  as  to  the  number  of  seeds  that  sprout.     Can  you  account  for  this? 

A.  If  the  seed  is  from  the  same  package  and  the  germinating  qualities 
seem  different,  it  is  obviously  due  to  soil,  or  to  atmospheric  conditions,  or 
to  your  system  of  treatment  of  either  soil  or  seed.  For  example  :  If, 
after  preparing  the  land  in  one  instance,  the  seed  is  sown  at  once  in  the 
damp  soil,  it  is  likely  to  sprout  at  once  ;  but  if  in  the  other  instance  after 
the  lahd  is  prepared  it  be  left  to  dry  and  bake  from  one  to  two  days,  or  a 
week  or  more,  before  sowing,  then  the  seed  will  be  slow  to  germinate,  if 
indeed  it  does  not  fail  altogether. 

875.  Q.  What  soil  is  adapted  to  bean  culture? 
A.  It  is  an  old  saying  that  any  field  is  good  enough  for  beans,  but  that 

is  a  mistake,  for  this  crop  profits  as  much  by  sowing  on  good  soil  as  any 
other.  On  strong  soils  the  crop  sometimes  reaches  thirty  bushels  of  dry 
seeds  to  the  acre,  but  often  on  thin  soils  not  more  than  six  or  seven. 

876.  Q.  You  sent  me  last  month  a  lot  of  Golden  Wax  beans  with  very 
little  white  upon  the  dry  seeds.  Now  I  get  another  lot  from  you  nearly 
all  white.     Can  they  both  be  true  ? 

A.  Yes ;  they  may  differ  very  much  in  the  extent  of  coloring  on  the 
dry  seed  and  yet  both  be  equally  good  when  in  edible  pod.  In  fact, 
there  may  be  a  half-dozen  degrees  of  coloring  in  as  many  lots,  due  par- 
tially to  the  stock  seeds  planted,  but  principally  to  the  soil  on  which  They 


Bean  Soil. 


Variation 
in  Beans. 


QUERIES  AND   ANSWERS.  143 

were  grown.  Red  Valentine  beans  differ  also  in  degrees  of  color  and  in 
shape  and  plumpness,  as  some  are  grown  on  heavy  soil,  others  on  light 
sand  ;  some  as  an  early  crop,  others  as  a  late  crop ;  yet  all  may  be 
equally  early  and  good  in  quality  of  edible  pod.  If  there  is  any  choice 
between  lots  of  Red  Valentine  beans  the  small  misshapen  ones  are  the 
best,  without  respect  to  the  depth  of  coloring. 

877.  Q.  How  is  it  that  two  lots  of  Bloomsdale  Ruta  Baga  seed  received  Size  of  Seeds. 
from  you  a^t  intervals  of  ten  days  were  quite  different  in  color  and  size  of 

seed? 

A.  We  grow  our  Ruta  Baga  seed  on  many  different  fields,  some  being 
sand  and  gravel,  others  clay,  and  these  in  three  different  States,  conse- 
quently the  crops  are  ripened  at  different  periods  and  exposed  to  variable 
fluctuations  of  soil  conditions  and  more  or  less  heat  and  rain.  No  sane 
man  could  expect  that  such  seeds  could  be  of  uniform  color,  or  plump- 
ness, or  indeed  appear  to  be  the  same  thing.  The  grade  or  quality  of  all 
is  the  same  as  all  are  grown  from  pedigree  roots, 

878.  Q.  Does  pollination  in  the  case  of  garden  vegetables  occur  with  Pollination. 
equal  certainty  both  in  Northern  and  Southern  climates  ? 

A.  It  is  only  absolutely  pertain ,  that  is,  certain  up  to  the  normal  degree, 
in  climates  of  intermediate  temperature  and  conditions.  Burning  heats 
or  extended  droughts  of  tropical  countries  interfere  partially  with  the 
process,  so  also  do  cool  to  cold  nights  of  Northern  latitudes.  Under  ex- 
cessive and  long-continued  heat  the  stamens  and  pistils  dry  up  prema- 
turely, and  under  conditions  of  too  low  a  temperature  at  nights  they  do 
not  develop  to  such  a  degree  as  in  districts  where  the  nights  are  hot. 
There  the  pollen  is  produced  in  perfection,  and  is  so  light  that  pollination 
is  certain  to  occur. 

879.  Q.  My  section  in  Indiana  has  always  been  celebrated  for  the  excel-  Flavor  in 
lent  flavor  of  its  cantaloupes,  but  this  year  no  melons  for  twenty  miles  Cantaloupes, 
around  me  have  the  usual  good  taste.     Can  you  explain  this  ? 

A.  Nothing  unusual  in  this  ;  it  often  happens,  but  it  is  hard  to  explain. 
Probably  due  to  a  want  of  sunshine,  or  too  much  rain,  too  much  drought, 
or  to  some  unusual  climatic  influence  unexplainable.  It  may  not  occur 
again  for  years,  but  just  such  conditions  are  certain  to  be  experienced  in 
time  by  all  melon  growers. 

880.  Q.  Can  watercress  be  grown  in  the  absence  of  a  running  stream  of -Watercress, 
water.     If  so  please  give  me  directions  ? 

A.  Yes  ;  it  is  often  grown  during  Winter  in  vegetable  forcing  houses. 
It  requires  a  moist  atmosphere  and  lots  of  watering,  and  must  be  grown 
in  a  cool  shady  position.  To  start  the  seed  it  should  be  sown  in  pans  or 
trays,  and  after  the  plants  are  two  inches  high  pricked  out  at  four  inches 
apart.  The  watercress  belongs  to  the  nasturtium  family.  Under  glass, 
or  in  a  garden,  watercress  never  reaches  the  vigor  of  plants  grown  in  a 
running  stream. 

881.  Q.  Why  do  radishes  sometimes  become  pithy  and  tough  ?  Radishes. 
A.  Radishes  well  grown  are  grown  quickly,  and  under  those  circum- 


144 


QUERIES   AND  ANSWERS. 


Stances  never  become  pithy  and  tough  till  they  reach  a  size  undesirable 
for  table  use.  It  is  a  mistake  to  wait  for  radishes  to  grow  big,  they  should 
be  eaten  small,  when  a  little  over  one-half  an  inch  in  diameter  ;  then  they 
are  bright,  crisp,  of  good  flavor  and  attractive.  On  poor,  hard  soil,  or  soil 
infested  with  grub  worms  or  fungi,  they  never  can  be  expected  to  grow 
fast  nor  to  be  good,  either  large  or  small. 

StartingSeeds     882.  Q.  How  can  I  best  start  my  seeds  in  the  house  to  be  afterwards 

for  removed  to  the  garden  ? 

Subsequent 


Transplant- 
ing. 


A.  When  it  is  desired  to  hasten  the  development  of  plants,  they  may  be 
sown  in  the  conservatory  or  in  boxes  within  the  house.  Those  who  have 
greenhouses  hardly  need  directions,  but  for  those  who  have  had  less  ex- 
perience we  drop  the  following  hints  : 

Procure  shallow  boxes,  trays,  or  broad  pots  from  two  to  four  inches 
deep.  The  bottoms  open  for  the  free  passage  of  water,  else  the  earth  will 
bake  and  become  sour.  Seeds  will  not  germinate  satisfactorily  or  thrive 
in  a  wet  soil. 

Prepare  a  mixture  of  one-third  leaf  mold  cut  fine,  one-third  clean  sand, 
and  one-third  finely  pulverized  stable  manure,  moisten  the  mixture 
thoroughly,  and  fill  into  the  boxes  to  within  a  half-inch  of  the  top — gently 
patting  down  the  surface  to  a  level.  Upon  this  distribute  the  seed,  and 
cover  just  out  of  sight,  by  sifting  over  the  seed  the  finest  dust  procurable, 
settling  the  seed  down  with  a  fine  spray  of  water  shaken  from  a  brush,  a 
heavier  application  baking  the  surface. 

Place  the  boxes  where  they  will  remain  at  a  temperature  of  between 
60°  and  70°,  applying  water  with  a  brush  or  fine  rose  when  the  surface 
becomes  dry. 

When  the  seedlings  are  half  an  inch  high,  they  may  be  transplanted  to 
other  boxes,  placing  the  tiny  plants  about  one  to  each  square  inch.  When 
these  become  so  large  as  to  crowd  each  other,  they  should  again  be  trans- 
planted to  the  garden,  or  to  other  boxes  according  to  the  season. 

883.  Q.  Give  me  some  directions  about  sowing  flower  seeds  in  mj 
FlowerSeeds.  garden  ? 

A.  Flower  seeds  being  usually  small  and  delicate,  the  land  to  receive 
them  must  necessarily  be  carefully  prepared,  otherwise  the  cost  of  pur- 
chase and  labor  of  sowing  will  be  expended  in  vain.  Large  stones,  clods, 
and  other  material  out  of  place,  should  be  removed  after  the  earth  has 
been  deeply  dug  and  fertilized  ;  but  the  earth  should  not  be  made  so  fine 
as  to  become  pasty  under  moisture. 

The  best  results  will  generally  be  obtained  by  the  beginner  by  concen- 
trating the  crop,  or  sowing  all  the  varieties  in  one  plot  or  bed,  or  a  portion 
of  ground,  whatever  its  size  may  be,  sufficiently  large  to  hold  all  sorts 
placed  in  parallel  rows  at  one  foot  apart,  and  this  concentrated  plantation 
can  be  carefully  weeded,  and  otherwise  attended  to  during  the  early  stages 
of  growth. 

Afterwards,  when  one  or  two  inches  high,  the  young  plants  can  be 
removed,  on  a  rainy  or  cloudy,  damp  day,  to  permanent  positions  ;  here 


Sowing 


QUERIES  AND  ANSWERS.  145 

the  earth  must  be  carefully  prepared  for  their  reception,  being  especially- 
enriched  by  a  previous  application  of  very  short,  well-rotted  stable  manure 
or  compost. 

In  the  after-culture  the  most  important  matter  is  to  keep  the  clumps 
■well  thinned,  for  crowding  will  defeat  all  other  preparations,  while  space, 
■which  at  first  seems  four  times  too  much,  will  serve  to  develop  robust 
plants,  which,  by  their  ample  leafage  and  well-developed  flowers,  will 
amaze  people  not  familiar  with  the  conditions  necessary  to  successful 
plant  culture. 
884  Q.  How  far  North  are  garden  vegetables  cultivated.  Far  North 

A.  Some  time  ago  21ie  PhiladelpMn  Record  newspaper  company  sent  Gardens, 
an  expedition  to  Alaska,  and  among  the  reports  was  the  following  :  Upon 
arriving  at  Sitka,  nearly  5000  miles  away  from  Philadelphia,  and  in  lati- 
tude 57  degrees,  as  far  north  as  the  highest  part  of  Labrador,  the  Record 
men  strolled  along  Lincoln  street,  which  is  Sitka's  only  business  thor- 
oughfare, and  read  on  one  of  the  most  prominent  signs  in  that  place  that 
Landreths'  Extra  Early  Peas  were  on  sale  within. 

885.  Q.  Are  not  some  of  the  descriptions  of  vegetables  offered  by  some  „ 

,,  ,.,,  .  ,..„  Extravagant 

seed  merchants  very  highly  extravagant  m  word  pamtmg  ?  Advertising. 

A.  The  Rural  New  Yorker,  in  its  issue  of  July  9,  1892,  thus  refers  to  a 
new  variety  of  cabbage  :  "Here  is  a  new  variety  of  cabbage,  which,  if 
our  readers  have  any  faith  in  the  first  announcement  of  its  presentation  to 
the  public,  may  excite  general  interest.  We  print  the  advertisement  as 
received,  omitting  only  the  name  of  the  introducing  firm  : 

"  '  The  Extravaganza  Cabbage  (Munchausen  Stock),  Of  all  the  varie- 
ties of  cabbage  which  have  ever  been  ofiered  since  the  world  was  made, 
especially  those  described  in  the  picture  seed  catalogues  of  the  present 
day,  no  sort  ever  equaled  this  cabbage  for  every  good  quality  which 
trenchant  words  can  express,  or  the  fertile  mind  conceive,  and  we  would 
say  no  cabbage  of  the  future  can  possibly  ever  equal  it,  had  we  not  a 
variety  lying  back  to  introduce  next  year  which  we  are  going  to  advertise 
as  infinitely  the  superior  of  the  Extravaganza,  and  we  expect  every  year 
to  have  a  still  better  one  than  the  year  preceding. 

"  'We  are  getting  up  a  picture  of  the  Extravaganza,  which,  by  com- 
parison with  other  well-known  objects  purposely  placed  near  it,  will  show 
that  this  cabbage  is  as  big  as  a  tobacco  hogshead,  and  the  description 
which  will  accompany  the  picture  will  prove,  if  words  have  any  power, 
that  its  flavor  is  as  sweet  as  sugar,  its  texture  as  fine  as  satin,  and  its  habit 
exceedingly  early  or  so  rarely  late,  or  so  something  else,  as  to  eclipse 
every  cabbage  ever  before  known,  and,  above  all,  its  freedom  from  tlie 
attacks  of  insects  is  phenomenally  remarkable  :  indeed,  an  insect  which 
simply  flies  over  it  falls  dead  within  twenty  yards.  To  the  market  gar- 
dener it  is  a  boon,  as  it  sells  itself,  its  laughing  face  beaming  with  such 
benevolent  expression  as  to  win  the  admiration  of  every  purchaser  at 
once.'  " 

886.  Q.  Will  it  pay  to  grow  turnips  especially  for  feeding  to  cattle  ?        Turnips  for 

Cattle  Food. 


146  QUERIES   AXD  ANSWERS. 

A.  "In  this  country  the  turnip  and  the  ruta  baga,  or  '  Swede,'  as  it  is 
familiarly  called,  is  more  generally  cultivated  for  stock-food  than  any 
other  root — not  that  it  is  the  best,  but  because  it  can  be  so  readily  grown, 
and  at  small  cost.  While  beets,  mangolds,  carrots,  kohl  rabbi  and  parsnip 
demand  an  entire  season  to  mature,  the  turnip  is  of  so  quick  growth  in 
our  climate,  that  within  a  few  weeks  only  after  sowing  abundant  supplies 
may  be  in  hand. 

"The  writer  cannot,  however,  but  maintain  that,  though  at  some 
increase  of  labor  in  the  production,  no  expenditure  on  the  farm  may,  in 
the  long  run,  pay  better  than  an  annual  crop  of  mangolds  and  carrots, 
even  if  raised  only  in  sufficient  quantity  to  alternate  with  the  ruta  baga, 
and  thus  the  food  be  varied  ;  a  change  which  the  milch  cow,  the  stall-fed 

ox  and  the  sheep  crave  equally  with  man 

"  Nothing  we  know  of  is  so  efficient,  considering  the  small  cost  of  time 
and  money.  Seventy  to  eighty  days  will  malvc  the  crop,  and  at  a  cost 
not  exceeding  three  dollars  per  acre.  The  preparation  of  the  soil  and 
climatic  adaptation  of  the  locality  is  an  important  prerequisite  to  success, 
both  as  respects  the  productiveness  of  the  crop,  and  its  cost,  for  it  is  mani- 
fest that,  however  valuable  and  desirable  may  be  any  object  we  seek,  the 
cost  of  obtaining  it  may  be  disproportionate  to  its  value  ;  such  is  especially 
the  case  with  all  products  of  the  soil." — Landreth  Farm  Notes. 

Hay  Meas-         887.  Q.  Give  me  a  rule  by  which  I  can  measure  or  estimate  the  weight 

urement.        ofhayinamow? 

A.  Hay  in  a  mow  ten  feet  drop,  put  in  in  good  order,  and  not  too  ripe 
when  cut,  ought  to  average  one  ton  to  each  525  cubic  feet.  The  com- 
pression increases  rapidly  as  the  height  increases,  and  a  mow  of  the  same 
hay,  fifteen  feet  drop,  would  probably  turn  out  a  ton  to  475  cubic  feet,  if 
not  even  to  435  feet.  All  such  guessing,  however,  is  very  hazardous,  and 
it  is  always  safer  to  buy  or  sell  only  by  actual  weight. 

Horse-Badish     888.  Q.  To  get  horseradish  must  I  SOW  seed  or  get  roots? 

A.  This  plant,  seldom  producing  seed,  is  propagated  from  sets  cut  from 
old  roots,  and  in  market  garden  culture  nearly  always  planted  as  a  suc- 
cession to  a  Spring  crop  which  by  time  of  removal  leaves  the  horse-radish 
well  established.  The  sets  are  planted  in  rows  of  about  two  feet  by  eighr- 
teen  inches  frequently  among  Spring  cabbage.  Holes  are  made  with  a  long 
planting  stick  into  which  are  dropped  the  horse-radish  sets  to  a  depth  that 
the  crown  will  be  three  inches  under  the  surface.  It  will  only  succeed  in 
highly  fertilized  land,  and  each  year  should  be  i)lanted  afresh.  In  garden 
culture  the  sets  are  sometimes  planted  in  the  upper  end  of  round  drain 
tiles  sunk  into  the  ground  and  filled  with  earth,  the  radish  roots  being  thus 
directed  straight  downwards.  Yield  about  150  bushels  to  the  acre.  Sets, 
per  doz.,  15  cts. ;  per  100,  50  cts  ;  per  1000,  $4. 
Cheap  Seeds.       889.  Q.  "What  do  you  mean  by  cheap  seeds  ?    What  are  they  ? 

A.  Sometimes  they  may  be  passable,  but  nine  times  out  of  ten  they  are 
worthless.  They  are  cheap  because  grown  purely  as  speculative  crops, 
grown  generally  from  seed  stocks,  cheap  and  bad  to  commence  with,  and 


QUERIES   AND  ANSWERS.  147 

the  crop  resulting  left  to  bloom  and  seed  without  the  removal  of  hybrid 
or  cross-bred  forms,  thus  tlie  mixed  blood  of  the  parent  stock  is  developed 
to  an  increased  percentage  in  the  offspring. 

The  papers  of  the  day  are  now  discussing  investigations  and  develop- 
ments respecting  adulterations  of  drugs,  but  the  frauds  cannot  exceed  in 
extent  those  practiced  in  some  quarters  by  the  seed  trade.  So  great  was 
the  adulteration  of  seeds  in  England  that  Parliament  passed  an  Act  a  few 
years  ago  fixing  heavy  penalties  for  such  frauds,  but  they  still  continue, 
and  are  common  in  every  country  of  Europe. 

The  least  objectionable  fraud  is  the  process  of  cheapening  prices  by 
mixing  into  new  crops  a  proportion  of  old  seeds  heated  till  all  vitality  is 
destroyed — such  mixed  stock  will  vegetate  only  to  the  extent  of  50  per 
•cent.,  often  much  less. 

The  vitality  or  germinating  power  of  seeds  is  not,  however,  the  most 
important  question  to  the  gardener,  for  if  seeds  fail  to  sprout  the  first  cost 
is  the  principal  loss.  Tlie  quality  of  the  vegetables  seeds  may  produce, 
is  the  all  important  question,  and  that  can  only  be  determined  when,  per- 
haps, it  is  too  late  in  the  season  to  remedy  an  imposition. 

Better  every  grain  should  be  dead  than  mixed  or  hybridized.  The 
critical  gardener  considers  well  before  he  makes  his  purchases,  and  to 
the  experienced  planter  nothing  is  so  suspicious  as  "  cheap  seeds  " 

890.  Q.  Tell  me  something  about  watermelon  culture  ?  -^  ^         ^ 
_y                      ,                               ,                ,  Watermelons 

A.  Watermelons  do  well  upon  sod  ground,  or  upon  land  prepared  for 

their  reception  by  plowing  down  a  crop  of  Winter  wheat  or  Winter  rye, 
the  sod  or  grain  aerating  or  keeping  loose  the  soil.  When  the  apple  is  in 
bloom  the  seed  is  planted  in  hills  at  ten  feet  apart  in  each  direction.  Two 
large  shovelsful  of  well-rotted  stable  manure  dug  and  tramped  into  each 
hill  and  covered  with  earth. 

The  cultivator  should  be  prepared  with  quite  four  pounds  of  seed  to  the 
acre  that  he  may  have  a  reserve  for  replanting  in  case  of  destruction  of 
his  plants  by  insect  depredations  or  beating  rains. 

One  vine  alone  to  the  hill  should  be  allowed  to. attain  perfection  ;  with 
four  hundred  and  fifty  hills  to  the  acre,  there  should,  be  nine  hundred 
first-class  melons. 

Philadelphia  commission  merchants  pay  for  prime  melons,  as  a  highest 
price,  forty  dollars  per  hundred  ;  as  an  average  price  ten  dollars  per 
hundred.  They  cease  to  be  profitable  to  the  trucker  when  bringing  less 
than  four  dollars  per  hundred.  First-class  melons  are  always  in  demand, 
but  the  market  is  frequently  overstocked  with  small  fruit. 

Much  of  the  melon  seed  offered  throughout  the  country  is  the  product 
of  immature  and  deformed  melons  remaining  in  the  field  after  all  the 
choice  fruit  has  been  selected. 

891.  Q.  What  is  the  cost  of  bisulphide  of  carbon  ?  Carbon 

A.  Any  druggist  can  obtain  it  and  sell  it  at  a  price  of  about  15  cents  ^**"^P^"®* 
per  pound,  and  it  can  be  had  in  tin  cans  of  five,  ten  or  twenty  pounds 
«ach.    It  is  explosive  and  very  injurious  to  breathe. 


148 


QUERIES  AND  ANSWERS. 


Garden  Plan.     892.  Q.  I  have  a  piece  of  land  150  feet  long,  about  one-sixth  of  an  acre, 
and  would  like  you  to  send  me  a  diagram  plan  for  laying  it  out. 

A.  The  varieties  and  quantities  here  named  ■will  cost  about  $11.75.  The 
rows  are  arranged  so  as  to  be  worked  by  horse  cultivator.  The  six-foot 
bed  of  small  vegetables  will  have  to  be  worked  by  hand. 

WIDTH  48  FEET. 


Garden  Plan. 


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2444         3         3         333         3      2>^2>^2>^2i^6 
DISTANCE  OF  ROWS  APART  IN  FEET. 

893.  Q.  IIow  are  citrons  planted  in  Jersey? 

A.  Cantaloupes  or  citron  melons,  as  they  are  termed  in  Jersey,  do  well 


QUERIES  AND   ANSWERS.  149 

upon  sod  ground  or  upon  land  prepared  for  planting  by  plowing  down  a 
crop  of  Winter  wheat  or  Winter  rye,  the  sod  or  grass  aerating  or  keeping 
loose  the  soil.     Two  ounces  of  seed  to  100  yards  of  row. 

The  seed  is  planted  at  about  corn-seeding  time  or  when  the  apple  is  in 
bloom,  in  hills  about  four-and-a-half  feet  in  each  direction.  Twoshovels- 
ful  of  well-rotted  stable  manure  being  tramped  into  each  hill  and  covered 
with  earth.  The  large  long  melons  like  the  Reedland  Giant  and  Casaba 
are  generally  sold  by  the  hundred  ;  melons  of  the  ordinary  form  and  size 
are  sold  by  the  basket  of  one-half  to  five-eighths  bushel  capacity. 

Philadelphia  commission  merchants  pay  as  a  highest  price  $1.50  to  $2.00 
per  bushel.  As  an  average  price  forty  to  fifty  cents  per  bushel.  Canta- 
loupe melons  are  frequently  a  drug  in  the  market. 

894.  Q.  Why  did  you  say  seed  purchasing  was  a  matter  of  confidence  ?  confidence  in 
A.  Because  it  is  so.     The  man  who  buys  dry  goods  or  groceries,  corn  or  seed 

cotton,  can,  to  a  very  considerable  extent,  judge  of  the  quality  and  value  of  ^a^'ciiasing. 
the  article.  This  is  not  the  case  with  seeds.  Simply  because  a  dealer  says 
a  certain  cabbage  seed  he  holds  in  his  hand  is  Large  Late  Flat  Dutch,  it  does 
not  follow  that  it  is  so.  He  may  have  been  deceived  himself.  No  one 
can  tell  till  valuable  time  and  labor  have  been  expended  on  the  crop.  No 
other  commodity  but  drugs  is  so  entirely  a  matter  of  confidence.  It  be- 
hooves every  one  to  get  their  supplies  from  dealers  of  recognized  repute, 
men  who  have  a  reputation  at  stake.  Cheapness  at  once  is  suflScient  to 
raise  a  doubt  both  as  to  vitality  and  quality.  Good  seeds  have  a  value — 
they  cannot  be  cheap  in  the  common  acceptation  of  the  word.  The  rather 
inelegant  though  expressive  phrase,  "  cJieap  and  nasty,"  applies  to  seeds 
more  than  to  any  other  commodity. 

895.  Q.  What  is  darnell  ?  Darnell. 
A.  It  is  Cheat  or  Chess,  a  plant  somewhat  of  the  appearance  of  wheat, 

but  never,  as  some  people  think,  developing  from  wheat.  Darnel  is 
hardier  than  wheat,  which  sometimes  when  Winter  killed  is  succeeded  by 
darnell,  and  ignorant  people  think  that  the  wheat  has  turned  to  darnell. 
Cheat  whenever  grown  under  a  heavy  crop  of  wheat  never  reaches  over 
a  few  inches  in  height,  and  is  not  noticed,  but  when  given  a  chance  by 
the  Winter  killing  of  the  wheat  rises  to  a  height  of  one  to  two  feet. 

896.  Q.  Will  you  furnish  me  a  table  showing  the  relative  periods  of  Maturity  of 
maturity  of  different  sorts  of  peas  ?  Peas. 

A.  In  our  trial  grounds  the  past  season  we  tested  125  samples  of  peas 
from  various  sources,  comprising  nearly  every  variety  at  home  and 
abroad  of  any  note.  Twenty  feet  of  row  was  given  to  each  trial.  All 
were  planted  the  same  day,  and  upon  equal  conditions  in  every  respect. 
The  stocks  of  each  were  the  best  obtainable.  Landreths'  Extra  Early  were 
the  first  to  bloom  and  first  to  ripen  for  the  table,  fifty  days  from  sowing, 
or  forty-seven  days  from  germination.  This  variety  has,  under  other 
conditions  of  heat  and  rainfall,  ripened  for  table  thirty-eight  days  from 
germination.  It  has  been  in  cultivation  by  us  for  over  sixty  years,  and 
has  never  been  excelled  in  earliness  or  delicacy  of  flavor.    All  the  Eng- 


150 


QUERIES  AND   ANSWERS. 


lish  varieties  proved  of  deflcieat  vitality,  while  tlie  American  stock  again 
illustrated  the  fecundity  of  seeds  ripened  under  our  more  tropical  sun. 
We  give  below  a  report  of  our  tests  last  Spring,  the  varieties  classified  in 
order  of  maturity : 


Maturity 
of  Peas. 


1 
2 
3 

4 
5 
6 

7 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 
32 
33 
34 
35 
36 
37 
38 
39 
40 
41 
42 
43 
44 
45 
46 
47 


Landreths'  Extra  Early. . . . 

Alpha 

Kentish  Invicta 

Caractacus 

Ringleader 

William  1st 

Dickson's  First  and  Best. . . 

American  Wonder 

Carter's  First  Crop 

Tom  Thumb 

Advancer 

Carter's  Early  Dwarf 

Blue  Peter 

Premium  Gem 

Challenger 

Pride  of  the  Market 

Daniel  O'Rourke 

Tall  Sugar 

Eugenie 

Dwarf  Sugar 

Sharp's  Invincible 

Stratagem  

Bijou 

Telegraph  

Laxton's  Supplanter 

Sunrise 

Market  Favorite 

Fill-Basket 

Dwarf  Blue  Imperial 

McLean's  Wonderful 

Forty-Fold  

Champion 

Hero 

Telephone 

McLean's  Dwarf  Prolific. . . 
Bishop's  Dwarf  Long  Pod  . 

Laxton's  Supreme 

Irish  White  Marrows 

Veitch's  Perfection 

Dickson's  Favorite 

Black  Eye 

Ciilverwell's  Giant  Marrow 

Marvel  .      

Huntingdonian  

John  Bull 

Veitch's  British  Queen 

Emperor  of  Marrows 


April  25 


EDIBLE. 

NO.  OF 

June  13 

49 

"  15 

51 

"  16 

52 

"  18 

54 

"  18 

54 

"  18 

54 

"  18 

54 

"  19 

55 

"  20 

56 

"  20 

56 

"  22 

58 

"  22 

58 

"  23 

59 

"  23 

59 

"  23 

59 

"  25 

61 

"  25 

61 

"  25 

61 

"  25 

61 

"  25 

61 

"  26 

62 

"  28 

64 

"  29 

65 

"  30 

66 

July  1 

67 

"   1 

67 

"   1 

67 

"   2 

68 

"   2 

68 

"   2 

68 

"   4 

70 

"  4 

70 

"  4 

70 

"  5 

71 

"   5 

71 

"   5 

71 

"   5 

71 

"   5 

71 

"  7 

73 

"   8 

74 

"  8 

74 

"   8 

74 

"  8 

74 

"  8 

74 

'•  10 

76 

"  12 

78 

"  14 

80 

QUERIES  AND  ANSWERS.  151 

897.  Q.  Do  the  Landreths  grow  garden  seeds  on  more  than  one  farm?    i-andreth 
A.  The  Landreths  court  investigation— they  have  nothing  to  hide.  ^'arms. 

No  seed  merchants  in  America  cultivate  upon  their  own  lands,  quarter  as 
many  acres  annually  as  they  do,  in  cabbage,   turnip,   Summer  radish, 
"Winter  radish,  beets,  egg  plants,  kale,  parsnip,  pepper,  spinach,  tomato, 
onion  sets,  and  seeds  of  many  other  families  of  vegetables. 
The  Landreth  seed  farms  owned  in  fee  simple  by  the  firm  are  : 

Bloomsdale  .   .   .  500  acres.  Reedland  .   .   .  146  acres. 

Monaskon      .  .  .  222  acres.  Granville  .  .   .  473  acres. 

And  rented  from  the  estate  of  David  Landreth  : 

Georges  .   .  78  acres.    Hunton's  .   .  185  acres.    Bellemont .   .  200  acres. 

On  these  particulaf  farms,  in  Summer,  are  sometimes  employed  a  force 
of  two  hundred  hands,  and  in  harvest  time  the  force  is  increased  to  four 
hundred  and  fifty  hands, 

898.  Q.  What  is  meant  by  Pedigree  Seeds?  Pedig^ree 
A.  Strong  believers  in  heredity  endeavor  to  grow  from  seed  of  fixed  Seeds. 

habit.  Intensely  careful  selections  of  many  years  have  established  types 
"which  are  almost  fixed,  and  are  called  "  Pedigree  Seeds." 

Heredity  is  most  fixed  when  plants  are  cultivated  upon  the  soil  and 
under  the  climatic  surroundings  of  their  place  of  origin,  while  on  the 
other  hand,  very  radical  departures  are  made  when  the  same  plants  are 
grown  under  changed  conditions  of  soil  and  climate.  This  is  noticed  in 
the  enlarged  and  coarse  development  of  cabbage  grown  in  Oregon  or 
California  from  Pennsylvania  seed,  or  in  the  deterioration  of  the  edible 
qualities  of  watermelons  grown  in  the  South  from  New  Jersey  seed.  Any 
Eastern  seed  taken  to  the  Pacific  slope  will,  in  a  few  years,  so  depart  from 
its  original  type  as  to  be  hardly  recognizable  under  its  original  name. 
The  most  marked  effect  of  soil  and  climate  is  on  some  of  the  vegetables  of 
Japan,  many  of  which  are  products  of  Landreths'  seed  sent  to  Japan  by  the 
United  States  Patent  Office  on  the  occasion  of  the  expedition  of  Commo- 
dore Perry  to  Japan  in  1847.  Those  seeds  were  the  first  of  the  kind  ever 
introduced  into  that  empire.  We  have  since  received  and  tested  many 
Japanese  seeds  of  vegetables  bearing  what  we  have  taken  to  be  a  trace 
of  the  original  American  parentage. 

As  respects  heredity  and  the  art  of  crossing  two  or  more  varieties  whose 
superior  qualities,  if  united,  would  be  desirable,  much  has  been  accom- 
plished, and  in  the  future  various  astonishing  results  will,  no  doubt,  be 
developed,  for  the  number  of  hybridizers,  all  working  out  different  lines, 
will  certainly  produce  a  multitude  of  interesting  results.  While  the 
greater  part,  however,  of  so-called  new  sorts  are  the  results  of  chance 
admixture  in  the  field,  the  seed  grower  is  now  ceasing  to  be  a  mere  plodder- 
on  in  the  steps  of  his  ancestors,  but  is  entering  into  his  work  physiologi- 
cally, if  not  scientifically,  and  the  work  of  the  hybridizer  is  now  so 
multiplying  varieties  and  subvarieties  as  to  confound  the  unintelligent 
seed  planter.     While  the  meritorious  alone  will  stand  the  test  and  be  per- 


152  QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS. 

petuated,  other  inferior  subtypes  will  be  offered  under  most  extolled  de- 
scriptions never  to  be  heard  of  again.  The  best  opportunities  for  hybrid- 
izing are  in  the  union  of  domestic  plants  with  others  of  like  nature  from 
remote  sections  of  the  world,  resulting  in  most  striking  development,  and 
generally  most  healthful  constitutional  qualities. 
Transplant-  ^^^'  Q"  ^  l^^^e  some  evergreen  trees  to  transplant.  When  can  I  do  it 
ing  Trees.        best  ? 

A.  Trees  holding  their  leaves  all  Winter,  hence  termed  evergreens,  are 
best  planted  in  August  and  September  ;  the  earth  then  beneath  the  sur- 
face may  be  likened  to  a  hotbed,  so  charged  is  it  with  heat,  while  the 
Autumn  rains  moisten  the  surface  and  stimulate  root  growth.  Plants 
under  these  circumstances  rapidly  develop  fibres  which  soon  are  able  to 
compensate,  by  the  moisture  which  they  take  up,  for  the  evaporation  by 
the  leaves.  The  planting  of  such  trees  deferred  till  Spring  often  results 
in  failure,  as  the  evaporation  is  then  greater,  and  to  an  increasing  extent 
as  the  Spring  develops,  while  the  soil  is  cold  and  root  formation  slow. 
Testing  Seeds     ^^^-  Q-  -^^  ^ ^  ^^^t  ^^^  your  seeds  for  quality  ? 

A.  The  Bloomsdale  and  Reedland  testing  grounds  comprise  various 
plots  of  over  nine  acres  of  land.  One  acre  is  devoted  to  vegetables  grown 
from  small  seeds,  as  radish,  lettuce,  beet,  carrot,  onion  ;  all  sown  in  rows 
across  the  breadth  of  parallel  beds  eight  feet  wide  with  three  feet  alleys 
between.     On  these  beds  are  many  hundreds  of  tests. 

Another  acre  is  devoted  to  trials  of  peas  and  beans  all  drilled  in  par- 
allel rows,  twenty  feet  of  each  variety,  and  all  in  the  order  of  maturity  as 
near  as  it  can  be  arrived  at.  These  peas  and  beans  are  thinned  to  three 
inches  apart  to  permit  perfect  development,  that  the  character  may  be  in- 
dicated. Half  an  acre  is  devoted  to  sugar  corn,  planted  in  hills  four  by 
four  feet,  and  in  parallel  rows.  These  tests  are  also  arranged  in  order  of 
maturity  ;  the  first  early  sorts  many  of  them  less  than  three  feet  high,  the 
late  varieties  eight  and  nine  feet  high.  An  acre  is  devoted  to  watermelons 
and  cantaloupes,  the  testing  and  judging  of  which  requires  much  experi- 
ence. One-half  acre  is  devoted  to  squash.  One-half  acre  to  cucumber. 
One-half  acre  is  devoted  to  cabbage.  One-half  acre  to  turnips.  Two 
acres  devoted  to  tomatoes.  This  last  being  of  very  particular  interest, 
comprising  many  hybrids  or  crosses  of  approved  varieties,  the  best  quali- 
ties of  several  being  united  in  one. 

The  test  of  insecticides  being  particularly  interesting,  more  interesting 
than  instructive  because  of  the  conflicting  results  consequent  upon  condi- 
tions of  rainfall  and  heat  after  the  application  of  the  poisons. 

The  test  of  ornamental  flowers  of  annual  and  biennial  form  embellish- 
ing the  whole  with  colors  of  dazzling  beauty.  The  trial  of  grasses,  all 
very  practical  ;  one  bed  of  thirty  different  sorts  in  blocks  of  ten  by  ten 
feet,  having  stood  for  five  years,  clearly  indicating  the  relative  periods  of 
desirability  of  each  sort. 

The  seeds  on  trial  in  these  experimental  grounds  comprise  all  the  so- 
called  novelties  or  varieties  ofiered  in  the  catalogues  of  the  many  seed 


Trial 
Grounds. 


QUERIES  AND  ANSWERS.  153 

merchants  of  the  United  States,  as  well  also  as  those  recommended  by 
foreign  seed  merchants  and  growers  as  adapted  to  the  American  climate. 
Ofttimes  the  same  vegetable  appears  under  half  a  dozen  distinct  names 
and  as  distinct  descriptions,  only  to  be  recognized  as  an  old  acquaintance, 
sometimes  of  merit,  at  other  times  a  sort  long  turned  down.  It  is  to  in- 
form ourselves  upon  the  subject  of  relative  merit  and  upon  the  subject 
of  name  that  we  conduct  so  large  an  experimental  ground  as  nine  acres, 
a  very  expensive  little  farm  in  itself,  but  worth  ten  times  its  cost. 

901.  Q.  Give  some  information  about  the  egg  plant.  Egg  Plant. 

A.  This  seed  is  generally  sown  under  glass  and  transplanted  to  the  field 
two  or  three  weeks  after  corn-planting  season.  The  plants  are  set  in 
rows  of  five  feet  and  at  three  feet  in  the  row.  The  land  cannot  be  too 
highly  fertilized  for  this  crop — very  short,  thoroughly  rotted  stable 
manure  or  similar  preparation  is  best ;  strong  manure  or  hot,  rank  manure 
is  unsuitable. 

Sow  in  hotbeds  or  other  protected  place  early  in  the  Spring  ;  when  up 
two  or  three  inches  transplant  into  small  pots  (which  plunge  in  earth)  so 
as  to  get  stocky  well-rooted  plants,  and  late  in  the  Spring,  or  not  till  the 
commencement  of  Summer,  unless  the  weather  be  warm,  transplant  into 
thoroughly  worked,  rich  and  recently  well-manured  ground.  A  good 
plan  is  to  open  a  deep,  wide  trench,  filling  it  nearly  with  manure  ;  restore 
the  earth  and  plant  therein,  placing  the  plants  three  feet  apart  each  way. 
The  seed  does  not  vegetate  freely  ;  repeated  sowings  are  sometimes  neces- 
sary. It  is  almost  useless  to  attempt  the  culture  of  egg  plant  unless  the 
proper  attention  be  given.  In  growing  the  egg  plant  in  the  Summer  and 
Autumn  months  in  Florida,  great  trouble  is  sometimes  experienced  in 
getting  a  stand  of  plants  owing  to  the  excessive  heat  and  beating  rains. 
This  difficulty  can  be  largely  overcome  by  shading  the  ground  where  the 
seed  is  sown.  If  sown  in  beds,  the  shading  may  be  accomplished  by 
means  of  frames  covered  with  seed-bed  cloth,  or  by  blinds  of  slats  or 
common  boards  prop'erly  supported  over  the  beds  to  cut  off  the  direct  rays 
of  the  sun.  If  the  seed  is  sown  where  the  plants  are  to  remain  (a  bad 
practice)  the  shading  may  be  done  by  using  Palmetto  fans  or  leaves, 
placing  them  one  each  on  the  north  and  south  sides  of  the  hill,  the  tops 
meeting  over  the  seed.  This  plan  is  used  by  some  of  the  most  successful 
growers  in  the  Gulf  States. 

About  3000  plants  are  required  to  plant  an  acre.  These  plants  should 
produce  an  average  of  three  to  four  fruits,  weighing  two  to  three  pounds 
each.  Our  selected  seeds  are  always  taken  from  fruit  weighing  eight  to 
ten  pounds  each  ;  we  have  had  them  of  thirteen  pounds  in  weight.  Com- 
mission merchants  in  Philadelphia  pay  the  market  gardener  about,  on  an 
average,  one-and-a-half  cents  per  fruit.  The  highest  prices  are  eight  and 
ten  cents  per  fruit. 

Florida  fruit  arrives  in  Philadelphia  the  latter  part  of  November,  and 
commands  $6  to  $8  per  barrel  crate.  Earlier  in  the  Autumn  the  market 
is  supplied  by  fruit  from  Jersey.    Towards  Christmas  the  price  of  Florida 


154 


QUERIES  AND   ANSWERS. 


Cooking 
Receipts. 


Cooliing 
Receipts. 


egg  plant  rises  to  $10  per  barrel  crate  and  then  declines  by  April  to  $6  to  $8, 
and  by  May  to  $5,  after  which  they  are  liliely  to  arrive  in  a  damaged 
condition  and  be  worthless.  Egg  plant  fruit  can  be  grated  and  canned 
for  Winter  use. 

902.  Q.  Please  send  me  the  directions  for  cooking  garden  vegetables 
published  in  your  Catalogue  of  1880. 

A.  Asparagus — Stewed. — Wash,  tie  in  bunches  and  place  in  saucepan 
of  boiling  water.     Cook  slowly  until  tender.     Serve  with  butter  sauce. 

Cold. — After  stewing  as  above  directed,  and  when  cold,  serve  with 
French  dressing,  or  serve  with  Vinaigrette-sauce,  made  as  follows  :  To 
French  dressing  add  onions,  pickles,  parsley  and  capers,  hashed  and 
mixed  well. 

Beans — Green  Beans,  String — Stewed. — Wash  and  cut  in  half,  and 
put  in  saucepan  of  boiling  water,  add  salt,  cook  very  quickly,  drain 
through  a  colander  and  refresh  with  cold  water  to  keep  green  ;  put  in  a 
frying-pan,  add  butter,  salt,  pepper  and  nutmeg. 

Dried  Beans — Stewed. — Soak  over  night  in  cold  water  ;  cook  slowly 
with  salt  pork,  add  an  onion,  cloves,  salt  and  pepper.  When  cooked 
thicken  with  melted  butter  and  flour. 

Baked. — Cook  the  beans  as  described  above,  add  half  gill  of  molasses  ; 
place  in  a  deep  dish  with  pork  ;  bake  in  moderate  oven  for  an  hour. 

Bean  Soup. — Stew  with  a  ham  bone  or  pork ;  strain  through  a  fine 
sieve  ;  add  a  small  quantity  of  cream  and  butter,  and  serve  with  fried 
bread  crumbs. 

Be^ts— Boiled. — Wash,  and  boil  till  quite  tender  ;  rub  off  the  skin, 
quarter  and  put  into  a  saucepan,  with  salt,  pepper,  butter  and  a  little 
broth.  Let  the  butter  melt,  and  mingle  well  by  tossing  the  pan.  Serve 
in  a  covered  dish. 

Pickled. — After  boiling  peel  and  quarter,  refresh  with  cold  water,  cut 
in  slices  and  put  in  a  jar  half  full  of  vinegar  ;  add  salt,  spices,  slices  of 
onion,  whole  pepper,  a  laurel  leaf  and  horse  radish  cut  in  small  pieces. 
Keep  covered. 

Broccoli — Boiled. — Boil  in  salt  water  until  tender,  and  refreshing 
thoroughly  put  into  a  saucepan  with  light  butter  sauce,  with  salt,  pepper 
and  nutmeg.  Place  upon  fire  for  a  few  moments  and  serve  hot  with  a 
little  chopped  parsley.  Cauliflower  and  brussels  sprouts  may  be  treated 
in  the  same  manner. 

Brussels  Sprouts— Shewed. — Place  in  saucepan  of  boiling  water,  add 
salt,  cook  very  quickly,  put  them  in  a  colander  and  refresh  with  cold 
water,  put  in  a  frying-pan,  add  butter,  salt,  pepper  and  nutmeg.  Serve 
hot  with  a  garnish  of  chopped  parsley.  They  can  also  be  served  with  a 
light  cream  sauce. 

Cabbage — Boiled. — Carefully  prepare  and  cut  in  quarters  ;  put  on  the 
fire  with  plenty  of  water,  and  boil,  refresh  and  cook  either  with  ham, 
corn  beef  or  salt  pork.     Cook  slowly  until  tender  and  serve  with  meat. 

Fried. — Use  only  fresh  cabbage.    Remove   the  outer  green  leaves. 


QUERIES   AND  ANSWERS.  155 

divide  in  quarters  ;  cut  out  any  hard  core  ;  wash  carefully  ;  parboil  Cooking 
twenty-five  minutes,  press  the  water  out  and  cool.  Cut  in  small  pieces,  Receipts, 
place  in  a  saucepan  and  put  in  salt  and  pepper  and  fry  to  a  light  brown. 

Pickled. — Cut  raw  cabbage  very  fine,  add  salt,  pepper  and  mustard 
seed  •  add  boiling  vinegar  with  onion  and  green  pepper  cut  very  fine. 
Cover  carefully. 

Coleslaw. — Cut  cabbage  very  fine,  and  serve  with  French  dressing. 

Sauer  Kraut. — Use  only  solid  heads  shred  very  finely  ;  take  a  small 
water-tight  keg  and  line  with  cabbage  leaves,  sprinkling  one-eighth  of  an 
inch  salt  upon  the  bottom  ;  upon  this  place  three  inches  of  shredded  cab- 
bage, which  cover  with  three  tablespoonsful  of  salt  well  pressed  down, 
then  another  layer  of  cabbage  and  salt,  until  keg  is  full,  when  hammer 
down  with  force.  Small  portions  of  herbs,  chopped  peppers  and  onions 
are  often  added.  On  top  of  the  upper  layer  of  cabbage  place  a  circular 
head  of  less  diameter  than  the  keg,  on  which  fix  a  heavy  weight.  When 
fermentation  begins  skim  off  the  scum,  keeping  the  cover  always  in  place. 
To  serve  sauer  kraut  wash  it  well  in  warm  water  and  drain  thoroughly, 
garnish  the  edges  of  the  dish  with  carrots,  onions,  a  bouquet  of  herbs, 
some  chicken  or  goose  grease,  and  put  the  sauer  kraut  on  top,  adding  salt 
pork,  sausage,  or  piece  of  bacon  in  the  middle  ;  add  salt,  pepper,  a  glass 
of  white  wine  and  a  couple  of  apples  cut  very  thin,  a  pint  of  broth,  cover 
and  let  cook  for  two  hours.     Serve  hot. 

Cauliflower — Boiled. — Wash,  place  in  a  vessel  with  cold  water  and 
boil,  empty,  refresh,  and  boil  again  ;  when  nearly  done,  drain  and  add  a 
small  quantity  of  milk  and  butter,  and  cook  until  tender.  Serve  hot  with 
cream  and  butter  sauce. 

Au  Oratin. — Boil  as  directed  above.  Place  tablespoonful  of  butter  in 
frying  pan,  when  melted  add  teaspoonful  of  flour,  mix  thoroughly  and 
add  one-half  pint  of  milk  ;  stir  continually  until  it  boils,  when  add  one- 
half  teaspoonful  of  salt  and  four  tablespoonsful  of  grated  cheese,  Parmesan 
is  best,  pour  this  over  the  boiled  cauliflower,  sprinkle  a  little  bread  crumbs 
and  bake  in  a  moderate  oven  until  light  brown  and  serve  hot. 

Baked. — After  cooking  as  described  above,  place  the  cauliflower  in  a 
baking  dish,  add  salt,  pepper,  nutmeg,  cream  sauce,  bread  crumbs,  and  a 
littte  grated  Swiss  or  Parmesan  cheese  and  small  pieces  of  butter.  Place 
in  a  hot  oven  and  bake  until  it  has  a  brown  color. 

Cold. — Cauliflower  can  also  be  served  cold  with  French  dressing. 

Carrot — Stewed. — Peel  and  slice,  put  in  a  saucepan  with  a  little  broth.  Cooking 
water,  salt,  pepper  and  nutmeg.     Boil  an  hour.     Thicken  with  butter  i^e**ip*S' 
kneaded  with  flour,  mix  well  and  boil.     Finish  with  butter,  teaspoonful 
sugar  and  chopped  parsley.     Serve  hot. 

In  Cream. — Wash  and  scrape  the  outside,  cut  in  small  pieces,  boil  until 
tender,  refresh  and  boil  again.     Serve  hot  with  cream  sauce. 

Celery — Stetced. — Trim  off  all  defective  parts  and  wash  thoroughly. 
Parboil  five  minutes  or  until  tender  and  drain  through  a  cloth.  Cut 
stems  all  same  length  and  put  in  a  stew-pan,  with  salt,  pepper,  butter. 


156 


QUERIES   AND  ANSWERS. 


Cooking         and  white  broth  to  cover ;   let  simmer  for  an  hour.    Drain  the  celery 
Receipts.        through  a  sieve  or  cloth,  saving  the  liquor,  to  which  add  Espagnole  sauce. 
Skim  the  fat  so  as  to  form  a  sauce,  press  thoroughly  through  a  napkin  ; 
place  the  celery  on  a  dish  and  pour  over  the  sauce. 

Espagnole  Sauce. — Take  half  pound  clarified  butter,  add  one  pound 
flour  ;  roast  very  light  brown.  Add  onions,  carrots,  a  bouquet  of  herbs, 
allspice,  a  knuckle  of  veal  and  a  ham  bone.  Let  simmer  slowly  in  sauce- 
pan, then  moisten  with  three  quarts  of  stock  to  a  thin  light  sauce.  Let 
cook  for  three  hours  slowly.  Skim  off  the  grease  ;  then  strain  the  sauce, 
and  reduce  with  sherry  or  white  wine,  according  to  taste. 

Salad. — Use  the  hard  roots  as  well  as  stems.  After  washing  well  cut 
the  stems,  both  blanched  and  green,  into  small  pieces.  Serve  with 
French  or  Mayonaise  dressing. 

Corn — Boiled. — Wash  and  boil  in  plenty  of  water  with  a  small  quantity 
of  milk  ;  cook  for  twenty  minutes. 

Fritters. — Grate  corn  raw  or  cooked.     For  dressing  take  one  pint  of 
milk,  four  eggs,  two  teaspoonsful  of  baking  powder,  half  pound  of  flour, 
salt,  pepper,  sugar,  beat  into  light  batter.     Fry  on  both  sides  in  pan  with 
hot  lard,  one  tablespoonful  of  batter  to  each  fritter. 
_  Pudding. — Place  half  pound  of  Indian  meal  in  three  pints  of  boiling 

milk  lightly  sugared.  Cook  for  twenty  minvites,  add  molasses,  six  raw 
eggs,  and  spices,  mix  well  together.  Put  in  a  baking  dish  and  bake  in  a 
moderate  oven.     Serve  with  vanilla  or  other  flavored  sauce. 

Cucumber — Salad. — Peel  and  cut  in  very  thin  slices  and  soak  in  salt 
.  water  for  two  hours.     Strain  till  very  dry.     Serve  with  French  dressing. 

Sliced — Pickled. — Peel  and  slice  fresh  cucumbers  and  put  in  a  pan  and 
let  stand  with  plenty  of  salt  to  draw  the  water.     Press  dry  and  put  them 
in  a  jar,  pour  over  cold  boiled  vinegar.     Add  salt,  pepper  and  a  few 
slices  of  onions. 
Cooking  Egg  Plant — FVied. — Peel  the  fruit  and  cut  crosswise  in  slices  of  full 

Receipts.  diameter  and  of  one-third  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  sprinkle  salt  between 
the  slices  and  set  aside  for  a  half  hour,  when  remove  the  water,  dry  and 
dip  in  butter  and  bread  crumbs  and  fry  in  hot  lard  until  brown. 

Baked. — Peel  the  fruit  and  cut  into  small  pieces.  Place  in  a  pan  with 
butter  and  sweet  oil  over  a  fire  for  three  minutes,  add  salt,  pepper,  and  a 
little  sauce  or  gravy.  Take  it  from  the  pan  and  put  in  a  baking  dish, 
coat  over  with  bread  crumbs  and  Swiss  cheese  and  bake  in  oven  till  quite 
brown. 

Kohl-Rabi — Boiled. — Remove  the  skin,  cut  in  quarters.  Boil  in  salted 
water  with  a  little  butter,  drain,  put  in  a  saucepan  with  melted  butter, 
stir  a  few  moments  over  the  fire  and  add  Espagnole  sauce  with  salt,  pep- 
per, butter  ;  mix  well  and  serve  in  a  deep  dish. 

Mushrooms — Stewed. — Wash  thoroughly,  peel  and  cut  off  injured 
parts.  Place  in  porcelain  stewing  pan  with  salt,  pepper  and  butter,  and 
two  teaspoonsful  of  salt  water,  stew  for  eight  minutes.    Serve  on  toast. 

Baked. — Clean  thoroughly,  remove  the  stems  and  fill  the  cavities  with 


QUERIES  AND  ANSWERS.  157 

stuffing  composed  of  onion,  tomato,   parsley,  chopped  very  fine.     Add  Cooking 
salt  and  pepper,  put  in  a  saucepan  with  butter,  stew  for  twenty  minutes.  Receipts. 
Add  crumbs  of  bread  and  thicken,  fill  the  patties  and  spread  crumbs  upon 
the  top.     Bake  in  a  moderate  oven  a  few  minutes  and  serve  with  brown 
sauce. 

Onion — Stewed. — Remove  the  coarse  skin,  cut  in  slices  and  put  in 
saucepan  with  fresh  butter  and  let  simmer  until  a  light  brown,  add  some 
Espaguole  and  a  little  Worcestershire  sauce,  salt  and  pepper.  Cover  and 
cook  for  twenty  minutes. 

Baked. — Select  largest  and  most  perfect  onions  and  boil  for  an  hour. 
Peel  off  outer  portion  and  put  each  onion  iu  a  buttered  stew  pan  with 
Espagnole  sauce  and  broth  ;  sprinkle  a  little  sugar  and  put  a  small  piece 
of  butter  on  each  onion.  Place  a  buttered  paper  on  the  dish  and  bake  in 
a  moderate  oven. 

Fried. — Wash,  cut  in  thin  slices,  dip  in  cream,  add  salt,  pepper  and 
roll  in  flour,  fry  in  hot  lard  till  crisp. 

Okra — Boiled. — Wash  and  cook  in  cold  water  to  a  boil,  refresh  and 
cook  again  with  boiling  water  till  tender.  Add  butter  and  salt  and  serve 
with  butter  sauce. 

Stewed. — Wash  and  cut  off  ends,  place  in  stewing  pan  with  a  little 
water,  boil  until  soft,  drain,  season  and  serve  with  melted  butter. 

Vegetable. — Cut  the  okra  iu  small  pieces,  put  in  a  pan  with  butter  and 
sweet  oil,  and  let  it  simmer  for  three  minutes,  add  tomato  sauce,  salt, 
pepper  and  small  pieces  of  butter. 

Soup. — The  okra  for  soup  must  be  tender,  which  condition  can  only  be 
found  when  the  pods  are  small.  To  prepare  okra  soup  cut  chicken  into 
small  pieces,  boil,  refresh,  add  okra  cut  in  small  sections,  rice  and  toma- 
toes. Continue  boiling  till  the  chicken  is  quite  tender,  season  with 
pepper  and  salt. 

Peas — Boiled. — Cook  in  salted  water  over  quick  Are  until  tender,  re-  Cooking 
fresh,  strain  thoroughly,  season  with  salt,  pepper,  butter  and  a  little  sugar.  Receipts. 

Soup. — Use  split  or  fresh  green  peas,  wash  and  put  on  fire  with  ham 
bone,  add  onions,  carrots,  knuckle  of  veal.  When  the  meat  is  cooked 
remove  it,  and  strain  the  soup  through  a  fine  sieve,  add  small  quantity  of 
cream,  butter,  and  season  to  taste.  Serve  with  fried  bread  crumbs. 
Soup  not  to  be  too  thick. 

Parsnip — Fried. — Boil  until  tender,  remove  skin,  cut  in  slices,  dip  in 
butter,  roll  in  bread  crumbs,  and  fry  dry  in  hot  lard. 

Saute. — When  boiled,  cut  in  slices,  place  in  frying  pan  with  butter,  salt, 
pepper  and  hashed  parsley. 

Pumpkin — Pie. — Peel,  cut  in  pieces  and  remove  seeds,  put  over  fire 
with  water  and  cook  until  tender,  mash  or  pass  through  a  sieve,  add 
powdered  sugar,  cream,  allspice,  nutmeg,  six  eggs,  small  quantity  of 
brandy,  teaspoonful  cooking  ginger,  mix  well,  bake  in  moderate  oven  with 
one  layer  of  dough. 

Potato — Boiled. — Wash  and  cook  in  salt  water  in  pot  with  cover. 


158 


QUEKIES  AND  ANSWERS. 


Cooking 
Receipts. 


Cooking 
Receipts. 


When  soft  to  the  centre  pour  oflf  all  the  water,  and  for  ten  minutes  let 
the  pot,  without  lid,  stand  on  the  range  to  get  rid  of  moisture. 

Croquettes. — Boil  peeled  potatoes  in  salted  water  and  put  therh  in  oven 
five  minutes  to  dry.  Turn  them  into  a  pan,  add  butter,  salt,  pepper  and 
nutmeg,  mash  quickly,  pass  through  a  colander,  return  to  the  saucepan, 
adding  four  egg  yolks  ;  put  on  the  fire  for  a  few  minutes.  Turn  into  a 
dish  and  let  cool ;  divide  into  portions  the  size  of  an  egg,  roll  in  pulver- 
ized crackers,  dip  in  batter  of  beaten  eggs,  roll  in  crackers  again  and  fry 
to  a  brown  color  in  plenty  of  lard. 

Fried. — Peel  and  wash  medium-sized  potatoes,  cut  in  one-eighths.  Fry 
them  in  hot  lard  until  cooked  thoroughly  and  of  a  brown  color.  Drain, 
salt  and  dry  in  napkin  before  serving. 

In  Cream. — Take  cold  boiled  potatoes,  cut  in  small  pieces,  put  in  stew- 
ing pan  with  cream  sauce,  salt,  pepper,  nutmeg  and  butter,  care  being 
taken  not  to  make  the  sauce  too  thick. 

Lyonaise. — Cut  cold  boiled  potatoes  in  thin  slices,  put  in  frying  pan,  add 
butter,  thin  sliced  onions,  salt  and  peppej.  Fry  until  brown.  Serve 
with  chopped  parsley. 

Stewed. — Peel  and  slice  cold  boiled  potatoes,  put  in  a  saucepan  with 
milk,  butter,  salt,  pepper  and  nutmeg,  and  let  boil.  Add  parsley  and 
butter  and  mingle  all  well  by  tossing  the  saucepan  until  the  sauce  is 
creamy.     Serve  hot. 

Salsify — In  Cream. — Boil  until  tender,  cut  into  thin  slices,  add  cream, 
or  butter  sauce.     Season  to  taste  and  garnish  with  chopped  parsley. 

Fried. — Trim  and  scrape  the  roots,  boil  until  tender,  drain  on  a  cloth, 
cut  the  roots  into  pieces,  one  inch  in  length,  dip  in  flour  batter  and  fry 
crisp  in  very  hot  lard  ;  drain,  salt  and  serve  hot. 

Patties. — Trim  and  scrape  the  roots  and  boil  in  salted  water  whitened 
with  flour ;  drain  and  let  cool  ;  cut  in  small  squares  or  dice  and  put  the 
pieces  in  a  good  cream  sauce,  with  salt,  pepper  and  a  little  nutmeg.  Let 
cook  for  two  minutes.  Next,  fill  the  patties,  bake  brown,  and  serve  hot 
garnished  with  parsley. 

Imitation  Oyster. — Trim  and  scrape  the  roots  and  boil  until  tender,  in 
salted  water  whitened  with  flour;  drain,  and  when  cold  mash,  removing  all 
fibres  ;  add  mashed  potatoes  and  put  in  a  stew  pan  with  butter.  Stir  them 
over  the  fire  until  very  dry.  Add  a  little  salt,  pepper  and  one  or  two 
yolks  of  eggs.  When  cold,  form  in  cakes  shape  of  oysters,  roll  them  in 
cracker  dust  or  bread  crumbs,  then  in  a  batter  of  eggs  and  bread  crumbs. 
Fry  in  hot  lard  until  brown  on  both  sides,  but  not  greasy.     Serve  hot. 

Sea  Kale — Stewed. — Pare  the  stalks,  wash  well  and  tie  in  bunches  of 
even  size.  Stew  for  twenty  minutes,  or  until  tender,  in  salted  water, 
thicken  with  flour  kneaded  with  butter,  drain  on  a  cloth,  untie,  dish  up 
with  a  buttered  white  sauce  on  a  large  napkin. 

Squash — Stewed. — Peel  and  cut  in  quarter  pieces,  place  in  pot  with  lit- 
tle water,  when  cooked  mash  or  pass  through  a  sieve,  add  pepper,  salt 
and  butter,  mix  well  and  serve  hot. 


QUERIES  AND   ANSWERS.  159 

Tomato — Stewed. — Scald  with  boiling  water  to  remove  skin,  cut  in  Cooking 
small  pieces,  removing  cores,  place  in  stewing  pan  with  butter,  salt.  Receipts. 
pepper,   cook  for  a  few  minutes,  thicken  with  corn  starch,  or  bread 
crumbs. 

Fried. — Cut  in  thick  slices,  season  with  salt  and  pepper,  roll  in  flour,  and 
fry  with  hot  lard  until  brown  on  both  sides.     Serve  hot. 

Turnip — Boiled. — Peel  and  cut  in  small  pieces,  boil  until  tender,  mash, 
add  salt,  pepper  and  butter,  or  serve  in  light  cream  sauce  without  being 
mashed. 

903.  Q.  At  what  date  were  Garden  Seeds  first  grown  for  sale  in  this  EarUest 
country  ?  Seed  Culture. 

A.  Possibly  some  were  grown  in  colonial  days,  but  there  is  no  record 
in  existence  of  such  culture,  everything  being  imported  so  far  as  known. 
The  first  recorded  seed  culture  was  by  David  Landreth,  of  Philadelphia. 
1784,  followed  by  John  Mackejohn  in  1792,  by  William  Leeson  in  1794, 
and  by  Bernard  McMahon  in  1799,  all  of  Philadelphia. 

904.  Q.  Which  seeds  of  garden  vegetables  are  richest  in  albuminoids?  Albuminoids. 
A.  Peas  and  beans,  vegetable  casine  being  found  in  them  to  the  extent 

of  20  to  30  per  cent.      In  potatoes,  vegetable  albumen  is  found  in  large 
proportion,  and  in  wheat,  vegetable  fibrin. 

905.  Q.  What  proof  is  there  that  diversified  farming  is  the  safest  to  Profitable 

pursue  ?  Farming. 

A.  The  report  of  the  United  States  census  for  1890  shows  that  of  the 
farms  sold  on  foreclosure  98  per  cent,  were  those  devoted  to  one  or  two 
crops  only,  while  on  farms  devoted  to  many  crops  only  2  per  cent,  were 
thus  sold  out. 

906.  Q.  When  planting  cucumber  seed  and  other  seeds  of  vines,  how  vine  Seeds. 
many  should  be  planted  in  a  hill  and  how  many  plants  left  to  stand  ? 

A.  The  average  number  planted  is  six  or  seven,  but  more  is  better. 
Farmers'  boys  use  the  following  rhyme  as  to  corn  : 

"Two  for  the  wire  worm. 
Two  for  the  crow. 
Two  for  the  blackbird. 
Two  to  grow." 

907.  Q.  I  am  thinking  of  laying  out  a  lawn  of  about  three  to  four  acres  Lawn, 
around  my  house,  and  inquire  what  should  be  the  leading  idea  governing 

the  plan? 

A.  As  a  rule  lawns  are  planted  without  any  artistic  or  practical  plan, 
and  you  do  well  to  contemplate  laying  out  the  work  after  a  defined  system. 
You  will  do  still  better  to  employ  a  landscape  gardener  to  draw  a  plan  just 
as  you  would  employ  an  architect  to  design  a  house.  The  first  thing  is  to 
decide  on  the  number  and  directions  of  vistas  or  lanes  of  open  views  from 
the  windows,  doors  or  porticos,  and  then  stake  them  out  and  positively 
adhere  to  keeping  these  vistas  open.  These  vistas  may  be  three  or  four  or 
more,  giving  views  of  distant  counlrj^  of  hills,  valleys,  water  or  other  pleas- 


16.0 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS. 


American 
Seeds. 


Aatnmn 
Cabbage. 


Ijinseed  Oil. 


Cotton  Oil. 


Onien  Sets. 


ing  objects,  all  displeasing  objects  being  hidden  by  masses  of  evergreen 
trees  and  shrubs,  which  should  be  evergreen  so  as  to  hide  the  displeasing 
objects  inWinter  as  well  as  in  Summer.  The  spaces  between  the  vistas  to  be 
planted  with  trees  and  shrubbery,  single  specimens  and  groups.  On  these 
spaces  mark  with  stakes  the  position  of  trees  intended  to  reach  full  devel- 
opment, placing  them  far  enough  apart  to  admit  full  development.  This 
done,  fill  in  the  spaces  with  other  trees  to  make  an  immediate  eifect,  but 
to  be  cut  out  as  rapidly  as  they  encroach  upon  those  intended  for  full 
development.  Few  men  have  the  strength  of  character  to  thin  out  lawn 
trees  encroaching  upon  each  other,  but  those  who  do  thin  out  from  time 
to  time  have  shapely  trees  and  a  general  effect  to  be  admired,  while  the 
timid  souls  have  only  a  mass  of  shrubbery  and  trees,  a  constant  advertise- 
ment of  their  incapacity. 

908.  Q.  Is  there  any  particular  merit  in  the  seeds  of  garden  vegetables 
produced  in  the  United  States  as  compared  with  foreign  seeds? 

A.  Yes ;  most  assuredly.  They  are  in  the  first  place  acclimated  and 
enabled  to  withstand  our  hot  suns,  possessing  an  heredity  fitting  them  to 
American  conditions — not  so  with  seeds  developed  in  the  moist  climates 
of  France,  England  or  Germany;  and  in  the  second  place,  American  seeds 
are  more  vital,  being  ripened  in  a  dry  climate,  ripened  in  the  field  and  not 
in  a  stack  as  are  most  European  seeds  ;  and  thirdly,  American  seeds  are 
grown  by  the  most  intelligent  of  American  farmers,  men  who  know  what 
other  Americans  want  as  to  form  and  quality. 

909.  Q.  What  sorts  of  cabbage  are  most  desirable  for  sowing  in  Sep- 
tember to  carry  over  Winter  in  cold  frames  ? 

A.  Among  Pointed  Heads,  Select  Jersey  Wakefield,  Landreths'  Large 
York  and  Bloomsdale  Early  Market.  Among  Flat  Heads,  Reedland 
Early  Drumhead  and  Early  Dwarf  Flat  Dutch. 

910.  Q.  What  was  the  estimated  value  of  linseed  oil  pressed  in  the 
United  States  during  the  census  year  of  1890? 

A.  Over  twenty-three  millions  of  dollars,  the  product  of  sixty-two 
establishments. 

911.  Q.  Can  you  inform  me  the  estimated  value  of  the  annual  manu- 
facture of  tobacco,  a  very  important  agricultural  product,  into  cigars  and 
cigarettes,  snuff,  and  smoking  and  chewing  preparations? 

A.  About  two  hundred  million  dollars. 

912.  Q.  Under  the  census  report  of  1890,  what  was  the  value  of  cotton 
seed  oil  and  cotton  cake  ? 

A.  The  value  of  the  two  was  over  nineteen  million  dollars,  the  product 
of  one  hundred  and  nineteen  establishments. 

913.  Q.  How  is  it  that  of  the  two  lots  of  onion  sets  received  from  you, 
the  first  in  September,  and  the  other  in  December,  the  last  were  superior 
to  the  first  ? 

A.  Sets  shipped  early  in  September  are  not  fully  cured,  consequently 
they  cannot  be  expected  when  packed  for  several  days,  or  perhaps  for  two 
or  three  weeks,  in  crates  or  barrels,  to  be  secure  against  heating  and  rot- 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS.  161 

ting.  Sets,  no  matter  when  received,  especially  if  in  early  Autumn, 
should  always  be  immediately  unpacked  and  spread  out  on  a  dry  floor  to 
air,  and  all  rotten  ones  picked  out,  as  one  damaged  one  will  infect  many 
others.  Autumn-shipped  sets  should  be  planted  early  as  possible  after 
receipt  to  stop  loss  by  decay,  and  to  gain  quantity  of  product  through  an 
early  start. 

914.  Q.  What  is  the  matter  with  the  musk  melons  this  year?    Every  Musk  Melons 
field,  without  respect  to  variety,  is  full  of  mixtures. 

A.  Your  question  answers  itself.  •  It  would  be  impossible  for  every  sort 
in  every  field  to  have  been  grown  from  mixed  seed.  A  general  effect  just 
as  you  describe  is  caused  by  a  local  condition  of  too  much  or  too  little 
rain,  heat  or  sunshine,  or  by  a  general  attack  of  insects  or  fungi. 

915.  Q.  About  White  Grocery  beans.      How  are  they  grown  and  har-  Beans. 
vested  ? 

A.  Any  ordinarily  good  soil  will  grow  beans  if  not  subject  to  overflow. 
They,  however,  do  best  on  a  clover  sod,  supplemented  by  400  or  500 
pounds  per  acre  of  good  fertilizer.  They  can  be  sown  by  any  ordinary 
grain  drill,  every  fourth  tube  feeding,  or  can  be  drilled  by  a  bean  driller, 
which  costs  about  $40.  They  must  be  cultivated  and  kept  clear  of  weeds. 
The  vines  can  be  pulled  by  hand  or  podded  by  a  bean  harvester.  They  can 
be  thrashed  by  a  flail  or  by  a  grain  thrasher.  The  production  varies  from 
ten  to  twenty  bushels,  and  the  price,  to  the  farmer,  varies  from  $1.30  to 
$2.00  per  bushel. 

916.  Q.  You  wrote  that  the  plant  referred  to  in  our  letter  was  an  Adventurous 
adventurous  plant.     What  do  you  mean  by  that?  Plant. 

A.  Those  which  by  accident  become  established  in  new  regions.  As 
a  rule  but  few  survive  in  the  uncultivated  condition  more  than  three  or 
four  years.  For  example,  after  the  Centennial  Exhibition  held  in 
Philadelphia,  in  1876,  quite  300  new  plants  were  observed  growing  in 
Fairmount  Park,  disseminated  by  seeds  brought  from  various  parts  of  the 
world  in  the  straw  and  hay  used  in  the  packing  of  foreign  goods,  but  now 
they  have  all  disappeared.  It  is  the  same  with  insects,  many  new  forms 
were  observed  for  several  years  subsequent  to  the  Exhibition,  but  now  they 
have  all  disappeared. 

917.  Q.  Do  vegetables  cultivated  for  their  roots,  as  carrots,  beets  or  Growth 
turnips,  make  a  root  development  immediately  upon  starting  into  growth  of  Roots, 
or  later  on  in  their  existence? 

A.  Only  after  complete  establishment.  All  dicotyledonous  plants  have 
at  first  a  single  descending  axis  called  a  tap-root,  and  this  must  establish 
itself  as  a  growing  organism,  rooted  in  the  earth,  and  drawing  nourish- 
ment from  the  soil  and  through  its  attached  foliage,  before  it  begins  to 
lay  up  any  superfluous  tissue.  Tap-roots  are  anchors,  and  the  places  of 
origin  of  minute  subterranean  filaments  or  feeders.  The  swelling  out  of 
tap-roots  by  the  laying  on  of  tissue  is  a  development  subsequent  to  a  com- 
plete formation  of  plant  existence.  For  example  :  Take  a  very  young 
Scarlet  Turnip  radish  and  a  very  young  Long  Scarlet  radish,  and  the  first 


162  QUEKIES   AND   ANSWERS. 

has  as  long  a  root  as  the  other,  or  take  a  Long  Blood  beet  and  a  Red 
Turnip  beet,  and  the  young  turnip  form  has  a  root  fully  as  slim  and  long 
as  the  Long  Blood,  and  sometimes  under  peculiar  weather  conditions  they 
are  both  slow  to  lay  up  tissue  and  seem  to  be  of  similar  habit.  Just  the 
same  with  turnips,  flat  sorts  sometimes  seeming  to  be  going  to  make  long 
roots.  A  peculiarity  of  the  tap-roots  is  that  it  is  only  the  point  or  termi- 
nal which  extends,  that  is,  the  lengthening  always  being  a  continued  exten- 
sion of  the  newly  formed  point,  consequently  a  tap-root  never  extends 
after  the  point  is  cut  off.  The  edible  portions  of  the  roots  of  beets,  carrots 
and  turnips  are  really  the  upper  part  of  the  tap-roots,  and  while  naturally 
distended  beyond  other  parts  have  been  abnormally  developed  by  hun- 
dreds of  years'  selection. 

Warranted         918.  Q.  Do  you  warrant  your  seeds  ? 

Seeds.  ^    jq-^  .  ^g  j^j.g  ^pj  g^  foolish  as  to  warrant  as  correct  the  results  which 

may  be  developed  consequent  upon  all  sorts  of  mismanagement  of  a  crop. 
All  seed  merchants  have  too  many  complaints  of  disappointments  of  crops 
due  to  unfavorable  soil  and  atmospheric  conditions,  and  due  to  ridiculously 
bad  management  and  want  of  common  sense,  to  warrant  satisfactory 
results. 

Cane  Sugar.        919.  Q.  How  many  pounds  of  cane  sugar  were  produced  in  the  United 
States  during  the  census  year  of  1890? 

A.  301,284,000  pounds  of  sugar,  and  of  cane  molasses,  25,409,000  gal- 
lons. The  value  of  the  sugar  refined  in  the  United  States  the  same  year 
was  one  hundred  and  twenty-three  millions  of  dollars. 

Agricultural       920.  Q.  What  is  the  value  of  the  annual  manufacture  of  agricultural 

Implements,  implements  in  the  United  States  ? 

A    Over  eighty-one  millions  of  dollars. 

Ece  Plant  ^^^"  Q'  •"■  ^^^  ^^  ^^^^^  ^^^^  pardon  my  hasty  and  perhaps  testy  complaint 

Vitality.  that  the  egg  plant  seed  you  sold  me  was  unvital,  for  I  have  sprouted  it  as 

you  suggested  and  find  it  all  right? 

A.  Certainly.  We  are  pretty  well  broken  in  to  groundless  complaints, 
as  not  only  the  planter  of  seed  but  the  merchant  finds  it  easier  to  write  a 
testy  letter  than  to  take  the  trouble  to  investigate.  Your  complaint  is  only 
a  repetition  of  hundreds  just  as  groundless. 

The  most  common  experience  in  the  way  of  foolish  complaints,  is  the 
claim  so  often  unreasonably  made  that  one  of  a  number  of  varieties  of 
seed  failed  to  develop  as  perfectly  as  on  some  previous  occasion,  the  com- 
plainant forgetting  to  award  praise  for  the  ninety  and  nine  varieties  which 
gave  satisfactory  results.  The  gardeners  expecting  a  venture  in  seeds  to 
be  far  more  certain  than  any  other  business  speculation,  notwithstanding 
that  the  influences  bearing  upon  germination,  plant  nutrition,  climatic  and 
physical  conditions  are  beyond  their  knowledge  and  control.  It  is  the 
unreasonable  claim  of  inexperienced  and  ignorant  persons  that  if  seeds  do 
not  grow  when  put  into  the  ground  it  is  always  because  they  are  bad. 
Now,  this  is  a  silly  charge,  for  good  seeds  may  in  whole  or  part  fail  to 
grow  for  very  many  reasons  or  causes;  as,  for  instance,  improper  or  in- 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS.  163 

flufflcient  preparation  of  the  ground,  unseasonable  time  of  sowing,  sowing 
too  deep  or  too  shallow,  insufficient  moisture,  excess  of  moisture,  cold, 
heat,  depredations  of  insects  under  or  above  the  surface,  unfavorable 
conditions  of  climate  or  atmosphere,  deficiency  or  excess  of  natural 
forces  which  we  do  not  understand. 

The  writer  has  been  called  upon  to  view  hundreds  of  poor  crops  which  Complaints 
the  gardeners  have  claimed  to  be  due  to  the  sowing  of  unvital  seed,  but**^  vitauty. 
generally  he  has  been  able  to  point  out  to  the  gardeners  extended  pieces 
here  and  there  where  the  germination  had  been  perfect,  proving  that  the 
failure  in  other  portions  was  due  to  imperfect  preparation  of  land  or  bad 
sowing,  as  respects  time  or  depth  of  covering,  for  if  the  seed  had  a  vitality 
of  eighty  or  ninety  per  cent,  over  one  foot  in  a  hundred  feet  of  row,  it  was 
equally  vital  all  over  the  patch.  Another  class  of  complaints  aie  from 
those  who  attempt  to  assure  the  seed  merchant  that  every  one  of  a  num- 
ber of  varieties  of  seeds  sold  were  of  bad  vitality.  These  unreasonable 
people  lay  down  the  charge  most  emphatically,  forgetting  that  such  a 
wholesale  condemnation  contradicts  itself,  for  no  seed  merchant  who  ever 
filled  an  order  would  send  out  seeds  all  of  which  were  unvital  ;  he  might 
make  a  mistake  with  one,  but  not  with  all.  It  is  clearly  obvious  that 
when  all  the  seeds  of  an  entire  purchase  vegetate  indifferently  or  entirely 
fail,  the  fault  is  in  the  preparation  of  the  land,  the  sowing,  the  soil,  insects 
or  the  season. 

The  seed  merchant  is  frequently  berated  by  a  certain  unreasoning  class 
of  gardeners  who  lay  all  the  blame  of  various  failures  of  the  seed  upon 
him,  and  when,  on  the  other  hand,  the  crops  develop  to  unusual  propor- 
tions by  reason  of  favorable  conditions,  the  same  class  of  gardeners  want 
a  premium  from  the  seed  merchant  for  growing  the  best  in  their  district. 
No  class  of  purchasers  are  so  unreasonable  as  seed  purchasers,  for  they 
look  for  perfection  in  an  article  yet  unborn.  The  cattle  breeder  knows  full 
well  that  young  stock  does  not  always  turn  out  as  he  desires,  plan  he 
never  so  wisely  as  to  cross-breeding. 

The  seed  merchant  often  receives  complaint  that  a  lot  of  cheap  seeds 
purchased  at  random  gave  as  good  results  as  a  more  costly  article,  the 
complainant  forgetting  that  he  cannot  rely  upon  cheap  seeds,  for  the  fol- 
lowing year  they  may  be  villainously  bad. 

The  gardener  cannot  manufacture  vegetables  or  flowers,  nor  the  farmer 
grain  or  potatoes,  as  the  mechanic  makes  an  engine,  or  a  shoemaker 
a  boot.  The  gardener  has  to  trust  to  the  hidden  processes  of  nature  as 
developed  by  moisture,  heat,  chemical  action  and  nutrition.  He  can  only 
help  nature,  and  ofttimes  is  powerless  to  do  that ;  and  when  some  natural 
action  fails,  or  he  sows  or  transplants  at  an  unseasonable  period,  he  should 
not  lay  the  blame  upon  the  seed  merchant,  unless  well  assured  that  the 
seeds  sold  are  positively  unvital  or  positively  untrue  as  to  representation 
of  kind. 

922.  Q.  What  is  the  difference  between  corns  known  as  Gourd  Seed,  Com. 
Dent  and  Flint  ? 


164 


QUERIES   AND  ANSWERS. 


Manure. 


Swede. 


Fig  Food. 


A.  The  Gourd  Seed  has  starchy  matter  covering  the  entire  top  or  crown 
of  the  grain,  the  bony  and  oily  sides  of  the  grain  not  extending  up  as  high 
as  in  the  Dent  nor  entirely  up  to  the  top  as  in  the  Flint.  This  starch  of 
the  Gourd  Seed  when  the  grain  becomes  hard  and  dry  shrinks  down, 
leaving  the  top  portion  of  the  skin  or  cuticle  of  the  soft  grain  to  dry  and 
curl,  which  it  does,  in  the  form  of  a  sharp  or  rough  tooth-like  projection, 
something  like  the  end  of  a  seed  of  a  gourd  or  squash. 

Dent  corn  has  less  starch  on  the  crown  of  the  grain,  and  the  horny  or 
oily  sides  extending  almost  to  the  top,  the  small  amount  of  starch  on  the 
crown  when  shrinking  seems  to  draw  down  with  it  the  skin  or  cuticle, 
forming  a  depression  or  dent,  hence  the  name  applied  to  this  type  of  corn. 

The  Flint  corns,  like  the  Pop,  have  the  horny  or  oily  sides  running 
clear  over  the  top  ;  they  possess  little  starch  and  consequently  there  is  no 
shrinkage  as  in  the  others  to  cause  a  collapse,  as  it  were,  of  the  skin  or 
cuticle. 

933.  Q.  Can  I  purchase  everything  which  vegetable  crops  require  as 
food? 

A.  Yes ;  so  far  as  can  be  determined  by  the  analytical  chemist  and  veg- 
etable physiologist,  but  you  cannot  get  the  component  parts  in  just  that 
condition  in  which  they  are  most  assimilable.  There  are  unknown  soil 
influences  always  at  work,  influences  of  heat,  of  cold,  moisture,  light,  de- 
composition, combinations  all  the  while  changing  the  character  of  sub-, 
stance  natural  to  or  applied  to  the  soil,  and  fitting  or  unfitting  them  as 
plant  food. 

924.  Q.  Are  the  leaves  of  the  Bloomsdale  Swede  the  same  as  those  of 
table  turnips  ? 

A.  No  ;  the  foliage  of  a  Swede  turnip  is  smooth,  a  blue  green,  and 
glossy  like  that  of  a  cabbage,  while  the  leaves  of  table  turnips  and  some 
round  cattle  turnips,  both  white  and  yellow  fleshed,  are  yellowish  green, 
rough  and  fuzzy.  These  are  styled  rough-leaved  turnips,  while  the 
Swedes  are  spoken  of  as  smooth-leaved  turnips. 

925.  Q.  As  you  advise  market  gardeners  remote  from  stable-manure 
supplies  to  keep  pigs  to  make  manure,  I  ask  in  what  way  does  pig  food 
differ  from  cow  food  ? 

A.  The  food  for  horn-cattle  or  sheep,  ruminant  animals,  consists  largely 
of  grass,  hay,  straw,  roots,  all  containing  considerable  woody  fibres. 
Pigs  want  very  little  of  foods  containing  indigestible  woody  fibre.  They 
require  foods  largely  composed  of  grain,  or  other  seeds,  seed  oil-cake, 
tubers,  all  containing  starch,  sugar  and  nitrogenous  matter,  all  very  con- 
centrated and  digestible  substances.  Nevertheless  the  pig  is  a  ravenous 
eater  and  consumes  a  much  larger  proportion  of  dry  substances,  compared 
with  his  weight,  than  the  ox  or  sheep.  The  investigation  of  Dr.  Lawes 
shows  that  for  each  100  pounds  of  live  weight  per  week,  the  fattening  ox 
consumes  over  12  pounds  of  dry  substance,  yielding  Ij^^,  pounds  of  in- 
crease ;  the  sheep  consumes  16  pounds  of  dry  substance  and  yields  1^^ 


QUERIES  AND  ANSWERS.  165 

pounds  of  increase,  while  the  pig  will  consume  29  pounds  of  dry  sub- 
stance and  yields  G^^%  pounds  of  increase. 

Dr.  Gilbert  says  the  fattening  foods  are  more  valuable  in  proportion  to 
their  richness  in  digestible  and  available  non-nitrogenous  constituents, 
but  as  the  manure  is  most  valuable  when  it  contains  a  large  proportion  of 
nitrogen  there  is  an  advantage  in  giving  food  rich  in  nitrogen  even 
though  it  may  not  be  so  fattening. 

926.  Q.  What  are  slime  molds  ?  SUme  Molds. 
A.  The  lowest  order  of  fungi,  consisting  of  a  mass  of  slime  growing 

usually  on  other  vegetable  matter,  as  on  leaves  or  wood,  often  on  the  roots 
of  cultivated  plants.  The  study  of  the  subject  of  root  parasites  in  general 
is  being  given  great  attention,  for  it  is  being  discovered  they  are  nearly 
quite  as  common  as  leaf  parasites. 

927.  Q.  Is  Clover  hay,  according  to  its  analysis,  more  valuable  than  clover  Hay. 
Timothy  hay  ? 

A.  Most  certainly.  It  is  quite  25  per  cent,  more  valuable,  ton  for  ton. 
It  contains  twice  as  much  nitrogen  as  Timothy,  and  nitrogen  is  worth 
fifteen  to  twenty  cents  a  pound.  Grow  Clover  hay  yourself  and  you  will 
not  need  to  raise  or  purchase  so  much  oil  cake  for  feeding.  The  estimated 
average  quantity  of  nitrogen  in  hay  of  Timothy  is  about  5  per  cent.,  in 
Crimson  Clover  about  10  per  cent,  and  in  Cow  Pea  straw  about  16  per 
cent. 

928.  Q.  Can  land  be  cropped  continuously,  and  the  product  kept  up,  Fertilizer, 
on  superphosphates  of  lime? 

A.  It  might,  but  the  practice  would  be  without  reason.  All  crops  re- 
quire slightly  dilferent  food  and  some  very  distinctly  diflferent,  conse- 
quently an  answer  to  your  inquiry  depends  upon  the  crops  you  would 
purpose  to  grow.  A  continuous  series  of  crops  might  be  grown  from 
superphosphates,  but  what  would  be  the  advantage  in  thus  adhering  to 
one  fertilizer.    It  would  be  impractical  and  probably  unprofitable. 

929.  Is  it  true  that  some  plants  poison  the  land  so  that  others  cannot  Poisoned 
grow  ?  ^a'^**' 

A.  Dr.  Lawes  says  that  it  is  so,  after  fifty  years*  close  attention  to  the 
subject.     He  denies  that  there  are  any  injurious  or  poisonous  excretions. 

930.  Q.  Will  you  draw  out  a  list  of  fruits  arranged  in  the  order  of  their  Fruits 

ripening?  in  Order  of 

A.  Yes  ;  but  the  list  can  only  be  of  such  as  are  found  most  suitable  in  M*t""*y* 
this  section  of  eastern  Pennsylvania. 

Of  Apples  as  follows  : 

Early. — Bachelor's  Blush,  Hagloe,  Rose,  Early  Harvest,  Yellow 
Trampat,  Red  June,  Astrachan,  Summer  Pearmain. 

Intermediate. — Smoke  House,  Maiden's  Blush,  Gravenstein,  Tall  Pippin, 
Orange  Pippin. 

jLo<e.— Fallawater,  Ben  Davis,  Northern  Spy,  Smith's  Cider,  Baldwin, 
York  Improved. 


166 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS. 


Fraits  in 
Order  of 
Maturity. 


Nitrogen. 


Rotation  of 
Crops. 


Wheat. 


Of  Pears  as  follows  : 

Early.— Barilett,  Doyenne  D'Ete, 

Intermediate. — D'Anjou,  LeConte,  Bossouck,  Sickel,  Angouleme. 

Late. — Lawrence,  Rutter,  KeiflFer,  Clairgeau,  Sheldon. 

Of  Peaches  as  follows  : 

Early. — Mountain  Rose,   Arasden,   June,   Rivers,    Crawford's  Early. 

Intermediate. — Stump  the  World,  Old  Mixon,  Alexander,  Reeves,  Fa- 
vorite. 

Late. — Crawford's  Late,  Wonderful,  Ward's  Late,  Lemon  Cling,  Free- 
man's Late,  Heath  Cling,  Foster,  Susquehanna. 

Of  Strawberries  as  follows  : 

Early. — Bubach,  Crescent  Seedling,  Jessie,  Wilson. 

Intermediate. — Sharpless,  Charleston. 

Late. — Gandy,  Kentucky,  Mt.  Vernon. 

Of  Raspberries  as  follows  : 

Early. — Turner,  Black,  Doolittle  and  Rancocas. 

Intermediate. — Souhegan,  Marlboro,  Cuthburt. 

Late. — Gregg,  Surprise. 

Of  Grapes  as  follows  : 

Early. — Moore's  Early,  Champion,  Wyoming  Red,  Victor,  Early  Har- 
vest. 

Intermediate. — Worden,  Concord,  Empire  State,  Delaware. 

Late. — Highland,  Pocklington,  Salem,  Wilder  and  Niagara. 

Of  Blackberries  as  follows  : 

Early. — Kittatinnery,  Lawson,  Wilson,  Jr. 

Intermediate.  — Snyder. 

Late. — Taylor. 

Of  Cherries  as  follows  : 

Early. — Mazzards,  Hearts. 

Intermediate. — Biggareaus. 

Late. — Morelloes. 

931.  Q.  How  much  nitrogen  do  crops  take  from  the  soil  ? 

A.  They  differ  ;  but  in  a  general  way,  according  to  Dr.  Lawes,  cropping 
under  an  average  rotation  takes  about  150  pounds  each  year,  and  about 
that  much  more  is  lost  by  leeching  down  to  the  substrata.  Dr.  Lawes 
estimates  that  "about  300  pounds  a  year  has  thus  to  be  obtained  from  some 
source  or  other. 

933.  Q.  Who  first  advocated  the  agricultural  system  of  crop  rotation  ? 

A.  Lord  Townshend,  in  1730,  saw  the  system  practiced  in  Germany, 
and  introduced  it  upon  his  Norfolk  estate,  a  rotation  of  turnips,  barley, 
clover  and  wheat,  raising  his  farm  land  from  a  sandy  waste  to  great  pro- 
ductiveness and  value. 

933.  Q.  What  has  been  the  increase  of  late  years  in  the  acreage  of 
wheat  production  in  the  United  States  ? 

A.  In  1872  the  area  was  twenty-one  million  acres,  in  1876  twenty -eight 
million  acres,  and  in  1892  thirty-eight  million  acres. 


QUERIES  AND  ANSWERS. 


167 


934.  Q.  When  was  it  discovered  that  certain  crops  enriclied  the  soil  ?     Green 

A.  It  was  known  in  the  days  of  the  Romans.  Varo,  who  lived  2000  Manuring. 
years  ago,  wrote  "certain  things  are  to  be  sown,  not  with  the  hope  of 
very  immediate  profit  being  derived  from  them,  but  with  a  view  to  the 
following  year,  because,  being  plowed  in  and  then  left  in  the  ground,  they 
render  the  soil  afterwards  more  fruitful."  People  of  that  day  did  not 
know  or  even  theorize  on  the  reason,  but  simply  worked  from  the  results 
of  experience.  The  crops  used  by  the  Romans  for  this  purpose  was 
lupins  and  vetches. 

935.  Q.  Will  you  give  me  the  relative  customs  rates  on  agricultural  Tariff 
produce  under  the  two  Tariff  Bills,  McKinley  and  Wilson?  Kates. 

A.  Yes ;  the  small  figures  on  the  following  schedule  are  the  percent- 
ages on  the  obsolete  McKinley  Bill,  and  the  large  black  figures  are  the 
present  Wilson  Bill  ? 


Com 

Wheat 

Rye 

Oats 

Barley 

Buckwheat 

Potatoes 

Hay 

Wool 

Fruits 

Hides 

Eggs 

Vegetables  .  .  .  Not  otherwise  specified 

Tobacco 

f.-  <  Cleaned. 

^^^® I  Uncleaned. 

Sugar 

Cotton 

Beans  (Dried)  ^ 

Cabbage  

Brown  Corn 

Hops 

Onions 

Straw 

Flax  Seed 

Apples  (Green) 


WILSON    BILL. 


30  per  cent. 
30  '« 
SO  " 
30  " 
30  " 
20 

15c.  Bush. 
S2.00  Ton. 

Free. 


Kree. 

3c.  Dozen. 

10  per  cent. 

$1.50  lb. 

3.25  lb. 

.35  lb. 

•l^lb. 

.8-10  lb. 
40  per  cent. 
Free. 

20  per  cent. 
Free. 
Free. 
8c.  lb. 
20c.  Bush. 
15  per  cent. 
20c.  Bush. 
20  per  cent. 


m'kinley  bill. 


15c.  Bush,  of  56  lbs. 
25c.     " 
lOc.     " 
15c.      ** 

30c.  Bush,  of  48  lbs. 
15c.      *"  ** 

25c.'  Bush,  of  60  lbs. 
»4.00  Ton. 

.11  lb.  wools  of  1st  class. 

.12  "       "  2(1    " 

32  per  cent,  wools  of  3d  &  4th 

classes  valued  at  13c.  per  lb. 

Free. 

5c.  Dozen. 

25  per  cent. 

$2.00  lb.  cigar  wrappers. 

$2.75  lb.  cigar   wrappers   if 

stemmed. 

35c.  lb.  all  other  leaf  not 
stemmed. 
2c.  lb.  cleaned, 
l^c.  lb.  uncleaned. 
Free. 
Free. 

40c.  Bush,  of  60  lbs. 
He.  each. 
$8.00  per  ton. 

.15  lb. 

.40  Bush. 
30  per  cent. 
30c.  Bush  of  56  lbs. 
25c.  Bush. 


936.     Q.   Will  soils,  however  manured,  refuse  to  produce  continuous  and  crop-sick 
oft- repeated  crops  of  the  same  plant  ?  Soils. 

A.  Yes  ;  this  is  especially  the  case  with  leguminous  crops,  but  Dr. 
Lawes  for  forty  years  has  produced  excellent  crops  of  barley  on  the  same 
land,  and  an  average  crop  of  thirteen  bushels  of  wheat  for  the  same  forty 
years. 


168 


QUERIES   AND  ANSWERS. 


Resistant 
Grass. 


Origrin  of 

Early 

Com. 


The  Xiocust. 


Shallots. 


Onion  Seed 
Sowing. 


937.  Q.  I  am  Secretary  of  our  State  Fair  Association  and  want  to  put 
down  twenty  acres  in  permanent  grass  within  tlie  grounds.  What  do 
you  recommend  ? 

A.  That  combination  of  grass  seeds  known  as  Landreths'  Mixture  for 
Athletic  Grounds,  it  being  composed  of  grasses  whicli  will  resist  tramping. 

938.  Q.  Are  the  extra  early  varieties  of  corn  of  northern  or  southern 
origin  ? 

A.  Everything  in  their  habit  points  to  a  southern  origin.  They  no 
doubt  were  developed  by  persistent  planting  of  early-harvested  or  half- 
ripened  seed.  Plants  of  Southern  habit  do  not  shoot  into  growth  so  early 
in  the  Spring  relatively  as  Northern  plants  of  the  same  genera.  The 
Southern  plants  not  being  so  quick  to  respond  to  small  elevations  of 
temperature.  The  long  season  of  Southern  latitudes  develop  an  heredity 
of  long  drawn  out  growth,  while  the  quick,  sharp,  well-defined  seasons  of 
the  North  shorten  the  periods  of  growtli.  Southern  plants  removed  to  the 
North  and  brought  under  the  influences  of  Northern  seasons  thus  become 
earlier  to  sprout,  quicker  to  grow  and  earlier  to  mature. 

939.  Q.  How  does  the  singing  locust  make  its  noise  ? 

A.  In  the  old  Middle  States  no  Summer  insect,  except  the  mosquito,  is 
more  in  evidence  than  the  Cicadae  or  dog-day  locust,  its  song  being 
continuous  from  sunrise  to  sunset,  consequent  upon  taking  up  of  the 
refrain  by  one  insect  as  soon  as  dropped  by  another.  The  song  is  an 
accompaniment  of  hot  weather.  The  insect  does  not  make  its  noise 
through  its  mouth,  but  by  the  action  of  powerful  muscles  upon  drums 
located  upon  its  body  and  abdomen.  It  may  be  often  noticed  the  song  of 
the  locust  is  suddenly  terminated  by  a  discordant  note  ;  this  is  caused  by 
the  attack  and  sting  of  the  locust  wasp — its  deadly  enemy — a  great  hor- 
net which  lives  in  holes  in  the  ground  into  which  it  takes  the  dead 
locusts. 

940.  Q.  Are  there  two  types  of  shallots  ? 

A.  Yes.  There  is  the  true  shallot,  the  oblong  bulbs  of  which  are  gen- 
erally encased  in  a  silvery,  filmy  envelope  and  there  is  the  false  shallot, 
the  bulbs  of  which  are  not  so  encased  and  which  are  less  oblong,  quite 
oval,  sometimes  nearly  round,  very  solid  and  a  coppery  red,  the  outer 
skins  very  delicate  and  easily  torn  off. 

941.  Q.  At  what  time  should  onion  seed  be  sown  in  the  latitude  of 
Washington  or  south  of  it  to  produce  early  market  onions  for  shipping  in 
the  Spring? 

A.  Sow  the  seed  in  a  seed-bed  between  August  15  and  September  1 
and  when  the  young  plants  are  three  inches  high  transplant  them.  In 
the  removal  from  the  seed-bed,  the  first  operation  is  to  loosen  the  earth 
beneath  them  so  as  not  to  tear  off  any  of  the  root  fibres.  In  setting  the 
seedlings,  place  them  in  rows  at  eighteen  inches  apart  and  two  or  three 
inches  apart  in  the  rows.  The  seedlings  should  only  be  put  into  good 
soil,  should  be  well  fastened  in,  and  the  operation  performed  imme- 
diately after  a  rain. 


QUERIES   AND  ANSWERS.  169 

942.  Q.  I  have  just  purchased  a  farm  iu  Delaware  and  upon  it  find  a  Weeds. 
varied  assortment  of  weeds,  which  have  for  years  held  such  undisputed 
possession  that  they  seem  to  resist  my  efforts  to  eradicate  them.     What 

shall  I  do? 

A.  You  must  decide  to  become  master  of  the  situation,  and  the  first 
thing  to  do  is  to  study  the  habits  of  weeds.  Their  seeds  are  so  often  so 
thoroughly  protected  by  envelopes  of  oily  and  starchy  matter  as  to 
retain  their  vitality  for  years  ;  some  seeds  freely  sprouting  when  brought 
to  the  surface  after  having  lain  for  ten  or  twenty  years  following 
an  unusually  deep  plowing  down,  consequently  the  first  important 
thing  is  to  prevent  the  ripening  of  weed  seeds  by  destroying  the  growing 
weeds,  if  not  as  soon  as  they  sprout,  certainly  before  they  mature.  This 
can  be  done  at  various  stages  by  the  hoe,  cultivator,  plow,  or  by  digging 
out.  A  good  plan  to  prevent  weeds  is  to  keep  the  land  well  covered 
with  strong  growing  crops  which  themselves  take  full  possession  of  the 
soil,  as  clover,  rye  and  other  top-heavy  crops.  A  third  good  course  is 
always  to  plow  the  land  after  a  crop  is  removed  and  sow  it  in  something 
to  temporarily  occupy  the  soil,  if  it  only  be  a  crop  of  broadcasted  corn 
which  may  reach  a  foot  or  two  in  height.  A  good  farmer  will  soon  put 
a  new  face  on  any  farm,  be  it  ever  so  weedy,  and  no  implement  is  so 
eflfective  as  the  hoe,  and  by  it  weeds  can  be  destroyed  in  their  earlier 
stages ;  but  that  eminent  agriculturist.  Sir  Joseph  H.  Gilbert,  says,  that 
upon  visiting  America  he  was  told  that  no  true-blooded  American  would 
bend  his  back  sufficiently  to  use  a  hoe. 

943.  Q.  How  is  it  that  I  now  find  so  many  new  weeds  upon  my  Mary-  Weeds, 

land  farm  which  were  not  known  in  that  section  during  my  boyhood  ^^^ 
,         .  Disseminated 

days? 

A.  Because  the  seeds  of  wheat,   oats,   grass    and    clover   are    now 

frequently  the  product  of  distant  localities  and  with  them  come  the 

weed  seeds  of  those  remote  sections.     Seeds  are  often  brought  on  the  wool 

or  hair  of  live  stock.     For  instance  :  A  herd  of  Texas  cattle  might  easily 

introduce  upon  a  Maryland  farm  a  lot  of  weeds  never  before  seen  there  ; 

and  in  the  bedding  of  cattle  cars  from  distant  western  localities  are 

brought  the  seeds  of  many  weeds.     The  whole  line  of  the  Pennsylvania 

Railroad  between  Philadelphia  and  New  York  is  now  bordered  with  a 

prairie  grass  the  like  of  which  was  not  seen  twenty  years  ago. 

944.  Q.  Can  I  grow  in  Florida  the  new  tanning  plant  Canaigre  ?  Canaigre. 
A.  Yes.     You  can  do  it  successfully  in  any  loose  and  dry  land  south  of 

the  latitude  of  Jacksonville.  The  plant  is  a  native  of  Mexico,  Arizona 
and  Southern  California  and  belongs  to  the  Dock  family.  It  produces 
tuber-like  roots  weighing  from  a  few  ounces  to  several  pounds  ;  the 
clusters  sometimes  weighing  up  to  one  hundred  pounds.  It  is  propa- 
gated by  the  sets,  about  seven  hundred  pounds  being  required  to  plant 
an  acre.  The  planting  is  best  done  between  the  1st  of  September  and  the 
1st  of  November.  A  crop  is  estimated  to  range  from  forty  to  fifty  tons  to 
the  acre. 


170 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS. 


Source  of 

Agricultural 

Advice. 


Peanuts.  945,  Q.  What  is  the  annual  production  of  peanuts  in  tlie  United  States  ? 

A.  About  four  million  bushels  of  twenty-two  pounds  each.  For  these 
the  consumers  pay  $10,000,000  annually.  Virginia,  Georgia,  Tennessee 
and  North  Carolina  are  the  largest  producers  in  the  order  named.  The 
African  and  Indian  crop  is  over  eighteen  million  bushels.  Most  of  the 
foreign  product  is  used  in  making  oil,  the  kernels  yielding  from  30  to  40 
per  cent,  of  oil,  worth  at  Marseilles  about  seventy-five  cents  per  gallon. 

The  cake  from  the  oil  presses  in  countries  where  it  is  pressed  is  worth 
thirty  dollars  per  ton  as  a  food  for  cattle  and  pigs,  and  is  considered 
superior  to  any  other  form  of  oil  cake. 

946.  Q.  Is  the  agricultural  chemist  a  better  farmer  than  the  practical 
field  operator,  or  upon  whose  advice  can  I  place  the  most  reliance  ? 

A.  The  agricultural  chemist's  observations  into  the  components  of 
plants  may  be  perfectly  accurate,  and  if  he  was  infallible  as  respects  his 
conclusions  then  indeed  agriculture  would  be  a  science,  and  the  chemist 
could  direct  the  farmer  just  how  crops  should  be  fed,  but  plants  are  not  en- 
tirely developed  by  chemical  combinations  or  by  mechanical  measures, 
for  back  of  all  these  is  a  vital  principle  or  force,  an  irritability  and  varia- 
bility and  selective  capacity  which  man  cannot  control  or  fathom.  The 
agricultural  chemist  can  only  suggest  foods  from  which  plants  can  draw 
according  to  their  powers  of  selection,  advanced  or  retarded  by  vital  force. 
Asparagus.  947.  Q.  When  sowing  asparagus  seed  in  my  garden  what  course  shall 
I  adopt  to  hasten  its  sprouting? 

A.  Soak  the  seed  for  a  night  in  tepid  water,  the  temperature  not  ex- 
ceeding 130O  F.  In  the  morning  thoroughly  mix  the  seed  with  damp 
earth,  and  put  the  mass  into  a  box  or  barrel,  where  let  it  stand  till  minute 
white  sprouts  appear  on  the  asparagus  seed,  when  at  once  sow  it  in  rows  at 
ten  inches  apart,  if  to  produce  plants  for  transplanting,  or  if  to  remain 
permanently,  sow  it  in  ifews  at  five  or  six  feet  apart.  It  is  far  best  to  sow 
in  close  rows,  the  young  plants  when  two  years  old  to  be  removed  to 
permanent  locations. 
Sugar  Corn.  948.  Q.  Which  varieties  of  Sugar  corn  most  rapidly  pass  beyond  the 
edible  condition,  that  is  to  say,  harden  the  most  quickly  ? 

A.  The  eight-rowed  sorts  remain  the  least  time  in  edible  condition,  as 
the  grains  are  not  compact  on  the  cob.     Such  loosely  covered  cobs  quickly 
lose  their  moisture,  and  the  grains  their  juice  and  palatability  because  of 
the  extraction  of  their  moisture  in  the  drying  of  the  cob. 
Beet  Sugar.        949.  Q.  What  is  the  annual  product  of  beet  sugar  in  Europe  ? 

A.  In  1894-'95  the  estimate  was  as  follows :  Germany,  1850  thousand 
tons  ;  Austria,  1050  thousand  tons  ;  France,  790  thousand  tons  ;  Russia,  620 
thousand  tons  ;  Belgium,  285  thousand  tons  ;  Holland,  90  thousand  tons  ; 
other  countries,  106  thousand  tons  ;  a  total  of  4846  thousands.  In  the 
United  States  the  approximate  manufacture  for  1894-'95  was  267  thousand 
tons. 
Tomato.  950.  Q.  How  long  will  a  tomato  continue  to  live  and  produce  fruit  if 

protected  from  cold  temperature  ? 


QUERIES  AND  ANSWERS.  171 

A.  Near  the  equator  a  tomato  is  said  to  live  for  many  years  like  the 
grapevine  In  this  latitude  there  have  been  thousands  of  instances  where 
in  glass  houses  tomato  vines  have  been  kept  in  bearing  condition  for 
several  years. 

951.  Q.  Is  salt  good  for  land,  and  if  so,  why  ?  Salt. 

A.  It  is  not  strictly  a  manure,  but  changes  existing  conditions  and  may 
therefore  be  looked  upon  as  an  alterative.  It  also  drives  worms  and  in- 
sects, and  by  its  affinity  for  water  keeps  land  moist. 

953.  Q.  Is  Carolina  phosphate  rock  a  good  dependence  upon  which  to  Carolina 
make  a  crop  of  garden  truck  ?  Kock. 

A.  No,  it  is  not.  It  is  little  better  than  a  make-weight,  or  a  component 
of  a  manufactured  Fertilizer,  reinforced  by  the  addition  of  better  materials. 

953.  Q.  Three  weeks  ago  I  drilled  my  spinach  seed,  but  by  reason  of  Spinach  Seed 
drought  not  a  seed  has  sprouted.    Will  it  grow  when  there  is  rain  ? 

A.  Probably  it  will  if  the  heat  of  the  sun  during  the  drought  was  not 
sufficient  to  bake  the  seed.  If  the  seed  made  an  effort  to  grow  and  was 
arrested  by  the  drought  it  will  not  start  again  as  wheat  would  do,  for 
spinach  does  not  possess  that  quality. 

954.  Q.  Does  a  thickly  broadcasted  com  crop  collect  nitrogen  ?  Nitrogen. 
A.  Certainly,  it  obtains  a  little  from  the  soil ;  but  neither  the  leaves  of 

corn  nor  the  roots  collect  it  from  the  air  in  the  same  quantity  as  do  plants 
of  the  clover,  bean,  or  pea  family. 

955.  Q.  Which  is  the  most  important  fertilizer  on  a  wheat  farm  ?  Phosphoric 
A.  Phosphoric  acid,  as  the  cereal  crops  draw  largely  upon  it,  and  as  it  Acid. 

is  stored  away  in  the  grain  which  is  generally  sold  off  the  farm,  conse- 
quently the  drain  upon  the  land  is  severe,  and  the  phosphoric  acid  has  to 
be  replaced  by  artificial  application.  Potash  is  taken  up  by  grain  crops 
also,  but  the  potash  goes  back  to  the  soil  in  the  form  of  straw,  so  also  in 
the  case  of  clover,  beans,  roots,  fed  upon  the  farm,  the  potash  goes  back 
to  a  large  extent. 

956.  Q.  Are  Savoy  cabbages  superior  to  smooth-leaved  sorts  ?  Savoy 
A.  They  are  incomparably  better,  in  fact  almost  equal  to  cauliflower.  Cabbage. 

and  they  can.  be  grown  where  neither  cauliflower  nor  broccoli  can  be 
produced.     They  can  be  grown  on  any  cabbage  soil. 

957.  Q.  Down  here  in  Florida  I  have  great  difficulty  In  obtaining  a  Egg  Plant, 
good  stand  of  egg  plants.     What  do  you  advise  ?  How  to 

A.  Advise  the  adoption  of  the  Northern  system  of  growing  egg  plants.  ^''^  **^®  Seed.^ 
In  Jersey  a  market  gardener  sows  his  egg  plants  in  a  hotbed  witn  plenty 
of  bottom  heat  and  gives  the  bed  every  attention  experience  can  dictate  ; 
plenty  of  heat,  rich  soil,  sufficient  watering,  sufficient  air  under  the  glass 
at  proper  times,  and  he  thinks  well  if  he  gets  50  pei  cent,  of  the  best  seed 
to  stand,  and  only  by  greatest  attention  does  he  keep  them  free  from 
fungous  attack,  for  if  mold  once  strikes  them  then  he  has  no  recourse. 
But  in  Florida  the  general  system  is  to  plant  the  seed  in  the  open  field, 
often  in  nearly  white  sand,  generally  without  any  protection  from  the 
sun.    How  can  much  success  be  looked  for  under  such  a  system  ? 


172 


QUERIES  AND  ANSWERS. 


Liime. 


Ruta  Baga. 


Turnips 
or  Beets. 


Varieties 
of  Turnips. 


Roots 
for  Cows. 


Sugar  Beets. 


958.  Q.  Is  lime  found  ia  plants,  and  what  benefit  is  it  to  plants  ? 

A.  It  is  found  in  the  straw  of  grain  and  more  largely  in  straw  of  clover 
and  beans.  The  two  last  are  very  obviously  benefited  by  the  application 
of  lime.  Dr.  Gilbert  thinks  it  is  connected  with  the  accumulative  or  veg- 
etative processes  of  plants  rather  than  with  their  maturing  processes  or 
condition,  as  a  largely  increased  accumulation  of  lime  is  coincident  with 
an  increased  bean  and  clover  crop.  Lime  is  therefore  of  much  importance 
to  all  crops,  but  especially  to  the  leguminous.  Many  soils,-  however, 
possess  enough  natural  lime  without  any  artificial  application. 

959.  Q.  Why  is  the  ruta  baga  considered  a  better  feeding  root  than 
White  or  Yellow  Globe  turnip  ? 

A.  Ruta  baga  turnips  or  Swedes  do  not  develop  such  a  mass  of  leaf  as 
do  White  Globe  turnips,  though  the  Swedes  give  the  greater  weight  of 
roots,  by  far  the  larger  part  of  the  accumulation  of  vegetable  matter  being 
in  the  roots.  The  measure  of  the  value  of  roots  is  not  in  the  weight  of 
water  but  in  the  weight  of  dry  substance,  and  in  Swedes  the  dry  sub- 
stance surpasses  the  proportion  in  Globe  turnips,  consequently  the 
Swede  is  the  best  feeding  root.  The  Swede  is  not  cultivated  as  largely 
as  it  should  be  because  it  requires  earlier  sowing  than  round  turnips,  and 
as  at  the  proper  season  for  drilling  Swedes  suitable  land  is  not  always 
available  under  American  systems  of  rotation,  or  under  the  no  system  so 
common.  Globe  turnips  planted  later  are  more  easily  located  on  the  farm, 
as  they  may  follow  a  grain  crop,  while  Swedes  have  to  be  sown  before 
the  grain  is  harvested.  In  any  case  it  is  not  desirable  to  have  roots  too 
ripe,  as  they  will  not  keep  so  well  through  Winter  and  into  Spring. 

960.  Q.  What  are  the  strongest  rooting  plants,  turnips  or  beets? 

A.  The  Sugar  beet  is  a  stronger  rooter  than  the  mangel,  and  both  are 
stronger  than  the  turnip.  The  Sugar  beet,  a  strong  feeder,  has  widely 
reaching  and  deeply  penetrating  roots,  and  absorbs  freely,  and  lays  up  a 
large  amount  of  sugar,  sometimes  one-fifth  part  of  its  crude  weight. 

961.  Q.  Do  White  Globe  turnips  and  Swedes  require  different  soils  ? 
A.  They  do  not  absolutely  require  distinct  soils,  but  upon  light  soi'is, 

which  do  not  produce  much  leaf  matter,  Swedes  will  do  well  where 
Large  White  Globe  turnips  would  fail,  and  on  heavy  land  where  Large 
White  Globe  turnips  will  flourish,  sometimes  Swedes  will  be  disappointing. 
A  too  generous  nitrogenous  manuring  for  turnips  of  any  kind  induces  a 
disposition  to  make  leaf,  sometimes  to  the  disadvantage  of  the  root  pro- 
duct. Leafy  roots  are  slow  to  ripen,  but  sometimes  this  is  an  advantage 
as  roots  too  ripe  do  not  keep  well  during  Winter, 

962.  Q.  Are  roots  a  desirable  food  to  give  milking  cows  ? 

A.  Yes ;  they  are  like  grass,  they  increase  the  quantity  of  the  milk  ; 
mangels  to  a  greater  extent  than  turnips,  and  Sugar  beets  more  than 
mangels.  Mangels  are  better  in  this  respect  than  silage.  Milking  cows 
require  more  and  richer  food  than  animals  being  fattened  for  market. 

963.  Q.  Can  I  rely  upon  a  crop  of  Sugar  beets  as  a  regular  and  con- 
tinuous cattle  food  ? 


QUERIES   AND  ANSWERS.  173 

A.  No  ;  cattle  should  have  other  food  rich  in  nitrogenous  substance. 
The  sugar  or  carbohydrates  in  roots  renders  them  very  valuable  to  cattle 
for  making  meat  and  milk,  but  they  are  not  sufBcient  in  themselves  to  sus- 
tain the  animal  functions.     Starchy  foods  are  wanted  as  well. 

964.  Q.  Is  there  a  difference  in  the  processes  of  growing  turnip  beets  or  Growing 
other  roots  for  cattle  feed  and  for  seed  purposes  ?  Roots. 

A.  Some  distinction,  as  in  the  case  of  roots  for  cattle  the  effort  is  to 
develop  the  largest  growth  of  the  root  and  consequently  the  heaviest 
yield  to  the  acre.  This  is  only  accomplished  by  giving  the  crops  the 
benefit  of  the  longest  possible  growing  season.  Early  drilling  is  therefore 
a  necessity  in  the  case  of  cattle  roots,  but  not  so  when  growing  roots  for 
seed  as  then  it  is  not  desirable  to  have  them  too  big  or  ripe,  for  such  do 
not  keep  so  easily  as  less  mature  roots.  The  second  season,  when  seed  is 
the  object,  it  is  best  to  plant  out  turnips  and  beets  on  heavier  lands  than 
that  on  which  the  roots  were  produced. 

965.  Q.  "Why  is  it  that  farmyard  manure  is  so  efficient?  Farmyard 
A.  The  immediate  or  first  active  part  of  farmyard  manure  is  the  urine  ^*'*"^®' 

or  liquid  portion  of  the  application,  then  afterwards  the  very  fine  and 
easily  solved  atoms  of  the  mass,  and  then  following  the  other  parts  in  the 
order  of  their  condition.  Various  lots  of  farmyard  manure  are  hardly 
ever  alike,  never  the  same  on  distinct  farms,  seldom  the  same  at  different 
periods  out  of  the  same  yard,  consequently  their  action  is  more  or  less 
active  and  more  or  less  constant.  In  all  cases  there  are  parts  not  avail- 
able for  two  or  three  years  and  this  is  clearly  proven  by  the  long  after- 
results  of  an  application  of  farmyard  manure.  In  the  processes  of  good 
farming,  stable  or  yard  manure  is  largely  made,  carefully  saved,  and 
judiciously  applied,  and  as  it  is  quite  continuous  in  its  actions,  the  fertility 
of  a  well-managed  farm  is  constantly  increasing. 

966.  Q.  Which  are  the  finest  types  of  sugar  corn  ?  Sugar  Cerm. 
A.  Those  of  twelve  or  more  rows,  as  in  them  are  found  the  narrowest 

grains  and  tightest  packing  on  the  cob.  With  a  diminution  in  the  breadth 
of  the  grains  there  is  an  increase  in  sugary  qualities — long,  narrow  shoe- 
peg  grains  being  generally  the  sweetest. 

967.  Q.  How  many  years  ago  was  introduced  the  system  of  preserving  Silos. 
cattle  foods  in  silos  ? 

A.  Eighteen  hundred  years  ago,  Coesar  practiced  it  when  he  made  his 
march  from  Italy  to  Germany,  storing  in  pits  as  he  passed  through  the 
country  large  quantities  of  green  fodder  to  serve  as  food  for  his  animals 
upon  his  return  march. 

968.  Q.  How  can  I  dissolve  five  hundred  pounds  of  bones?  Bones. 
A.  Break  them  up  into  pieces  small  as  a  walnut  and  mix  with  an  equal 

quantity  of  wood  ashes,  also  with  thirty  pounds  of  slacked  lime,  and 
fifteen  pounds  of  sal  soda  made  fine.  Mix  the  mass  thoroughly  and  pack 
into  tight  bins,  boxes  or  casks,  where  water  thoroughly  so  as  to  wet  the 
entire  mass.  Repeat  this  every  three  or  four  days  and  in  three  weeks  the 
bones  will  be  found  all  melted  down. 


174 


QUERIES   AND  ANSWERS. 


Sleasaring 
Land. 


Blue  Grass. 


Pulverizing 
Soil. 


Subsoil 
Plowing. 


Wire  Grass. 


969.  Q.  Give  me  some  quickly  approximative  rules  for  measuring  sur- 
face  area  of  farm  crops  ? 

A.  Assuming  that  the  area  of  an  acre  is  equivalent  to  a  space  seventy- 
yards  long  by  seventy  yards  wide,  or  4900  square  yards,  we  will  call  it  for 
easy  calculation  5000  yards.  Now  to  measure  any  piece  of  land  pace  o3  in 
yards  the  length  and  multiply  that  length  by  its  width,  and  its  area  is  the 
whole,  or  more,  or  the  fractional  part  of  5000.  For  instance,  if  the  length  is 
sixty  yards  and  the  width  thirty-four  yards,  it  gives  an  area  of  2040  square 
yards,  or  two-fifths  of  an  acre,  or  if  the  length  is  180  yards  and  the  width 
83  yards,  the  one  multiplied  by  the  other  gives  15,100  yards  or  three  times 
5000,  consequently  the  area  of  the  piece  is  three  acres.  To  lay  off  a  desired 
portion  of  an  acre  or  more  pace  off  in  yards  to  see  what  is  the  length  of 
the  field,  and  multiply  it  by  such  number  of  yards  in  width  as  will  make 
the  proper  fraction  of  5000,  if  the  space  is  to  be  under  an  acre,  or  over 
5000  yards  if  the  space  is  to  be  over  an  acre.  Purchase  the  little  book 
titled  The  Farmers  Land  Measurer,  by  James  Pedar.  Price  sixty  cents. 
It  is  invaluable. 

970.  Q.  Is  not  Kentucky  Blue  grass  the  best  pasture  grass  ? 

A.  It  is  so  most  decidedly.  It  is  especially  vigorous  and  particularly 
durable  on  soils  of  a  limestone  basis,  in  proof  of  which  witness  the  per- 
ennial pastures,  pastures  good  for  a  hundred  years  in  the  blue  grass 
regions  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee. 

971.  Q.  Is  it  not  bad  practice  to  endeavor  to  pulverize  the  soil  too 
finely  ? 

A.  No  ;  the  soil  cannot  be  worked  too  intensely  in  any  farm  prepara- 
tion for  cropping.  Thorough  cultivation  is  equal  to  an  application  of 
manure.  Try  it  in  any  field  for  any  crop ;  plow  a  section  of  a  plowed 
field  once  more  and  note  the  result.  Jethro  Tull,  of  Berks,  England, 
made  himself  quite  famous  in  1810  to  1830  by  advocating  thorough  tillage, 
and  subsequently  thorough  cultivation  and  hoeing,  entirely  in  place  of 
manuring,  and  while  he  did  not  prove  his  theory  he  demonstrated  the 
wonderful  results  that  could  be  accomplished  by  an  intense  system  of 
working  the  soil. 

973.  Q.  Is  the  practice  of  subsoil  plowing  beneficial  to  all  soils  ? 

A.  Only  on  soils  having  a  hard  understrata.  If  the  subsoil  is  sandy 
down  to  a  depth  of  twelve  or  fourteen  inches — that  is  as  deep  as  a  subsoil 
plow  can  go — subsoiling  will  not  be  of  any  general  benefit.  The  only  ad- 
vantage of  subsoiling  is  to  break  up  hard  pan  that  surface  water  may  pass 
down,  or  subterranean  water  rise,  and  that  roots  may  ramify. 

973.  Q.  How  can  I  eradicate  wire  grass? 

A.  First  dig  it  out  with  forks  and  then  work  the  land  every  week.  It 
is,  indeed,  best,  to  omit  a  year's  cropping  so  that  the  field  can  be  worked 
weekly.  Do  not  give  the  roots  a  chance  to  get  any  breath  through  the 
agency  of  surface  leaves.  Destroy  the  leaves  and  keep  them  from  devel- 
oping, and  the  roots  will  die. 


QUERIES  AND  ANSWERS.  175 

974.  Q.  In  what  part  of  the  cucumber,  the  skin  or  flesh.isthe  poisonous  Cucumber. 
principle? 

A.  There  is  no  poisonous  principle.  The  cucumber  is  simply  indiges- 
tible to  some  people.  Delicate  people  eat  cucumbers  with  impunity  while 
others  very  robust  cannot  use  them,  their  gastric  juices  do  not  contain  the 
proper  elements  to  digest  the  fruit. 

975.  Q.  Tell  me  how  a  market  gardener  should  lay  up  cabbage  in  the  Cabbage 
Autumn  to  be  drawn  upon  for  market  sales  ?  Preservation 

A.  Plow  two  furrow  slices  together,  making  a  liigh  ridge,  and  with  a 
shovel  dig  out  the  furrow,  throwing  the  earth  on  top  of  the  ridge,  whicli 
tramp  hard.  Into  the  open  furrow  stand  the  cabbages  up  perpendicularly, 
side  by  side,  roots  down,  and  tramp  the  eartli  hard  against  the  roots,  then 
with  a  plow  throw  a  furrow  slice  against  them,  covering  up  to  just  under- 
neath the  head.  Shovel  out  this  new  furrow  as  the  first,  filling  it  with 
closely  packed  cabbage  as  in  the  first  instance.  After  thus  filling  several 
furrows  on  one  side  of  the  ridge  repeat  the  entire  operation  on  the  other 
side.  Cover  witli  eight  to  ten  inches  of  straw,  on  which  place  poles  or 
rails  to  prevent  it  from  blowing  off. 

976.  Q.  Is  not  rolling  the  land  in  many  cases  injurious?  Kolling  Land 
A.  Yes  ;    and  farmers  are  finding  it  out.     Who  now  sees  one   roller 

where  there  were  twenty  that  many  years  ago.  A  farm  roller  is  a  useful 
implement  in  dry  weather,  but  should  never  be  used  when  the  soil  is  in 
condition  to  pack  tightly. 

977.  Q.  Is  coal  ashes  good  fertilizing  material  ?  Coal  Ashes. 
A.  Coal  ashes  are  of  no  value  in  themselves,  but  are  sometimes  useful 

in  clay  soils,  as  by  their  addition  such  soils  are  loosened  or  aerated.  Coal 
ashes  generally  contain  a  small  quantity  of  wood  ashes  which  give  them 
a  little  value  as  a  manure. 

978.  Q.  What  is  the  relative  value  of  sorghum  as  compared  with  field  SorgUum. 
corn  for  soiling  purposes? 

A.  Sorghum,  ton  for  ton,  is  the  superior  because  its  stalks  and  leaves 
contain  double  the  quantity  of  sugar  found  in  Indian  corn. 

979.  Q.  In  growing  a  crop  of  potatoes  is  flat  culture  or  hill  culture  the  potatoes. 
better  ? 

A.  Cultivation  of  the  potato  in  hills  was  a  system  imported  from  Ire- 
land and  England,  followed  there  by  reason  of  the  constant  rains  and  wet 
condition  of  the  soil ;  but  here,  under  our  warmer  sun  and  drier  atmos- 
phere, flat  culture  is  the  best. 

980.  Q.  Can  I  in  any  way  prepare  an  Imitation  of  barnyard  manure  Barnyard 
which  will  resemble  it  in  action,  and  cost  but  little  ?  Manure. 

A,  You  can  make  an  apology  for  it  by  taking,  say,  two  tons  of  swamp 
muck,  seventy-five  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda,  one  hundred  and  fifty 
pounds  of  wood  ashes,  twenty-five  pounds  of  common  salt  dissolved  in 
water,  twenty-five  pounds  of  fine  bone  meal,  ten  pounds  of  land  plaster, 
twenty  pounds  of  Epsom  salts,  dissolved  in  water,  and  thoroughly  mix 
the  whole  mass,  and  let  it  lay  for  a  week,  when  turn  it  over  and  let  it 


176 


QUERIES  AND   ANSWERS. 


Starch 
as  Food. 


Celery 
Preservation 


Weeds. 


Plant 
Nutrition 


lay  for  a  month.  This  should  not  cost  over  five  or  six  dollars,  and  will 
be  found  quite  efficient  as  a  fertilizer,  but  not  so  quick  in  action  or  so 
stimulating  as  barnyard  manure,  because  its  valuable  parts  are  not  so 
comminuted,  nor  is  it  in  so  good  condition  for  assimilation  by  plants  as 
that  which  has  all  of  it  before  been  within  plant  systems. 

981.  Q.  In  what  does  the  value  of  the  starch  in  corn,  or  in  any  food,  con- 
sist as  a  cattle-feeding  substance  ? 

A.  It  serves  the  purpose  of  a  fuel,  animals  eating  it  prepare  it  for 
oxidation,  after  which  it  is  in  great  part  returned  to  the  air  through  their 
respiratory  organs.  The  oxidation  and  assimilation  of  starch  imparts 
warmth  to  the  animal  and  assists  the  digestion  of  all  other  classes  of 
foods. 

983.  Q.  How  can  I  lay  up  my  market  celery  for  Winter  so  it  will  keep, 
and  so  I  can  get  at  it  as  I  want  to  sell  ? 

A.  "With  a  plow  throw  up  a  two-furrowed  ridge  and  tramp  it  hard. 
"With  a  shovel  clean  out  the  furrows,  placing  the  loose  earth  on  top  of  the 
ridge,  which  pack  down  with  the  back  of  the  shovel,  then  on  one  side  of 
the  ridge  stretch  a  line  lengthwise  and  with  a  spade  cut  the  earth  down 
perpendicularly,  opening  a  clean  trench  five  to  six  inches  below  the  gen- 
eral level  of  the  ground,  shoveling  the  loose  earth  on  to  the  top  of  the 
ridge.  Make  this  trench  of  such  a  depth  that  when  the  celery  plants  are 
stood  up  in  it  their  tops  will  be  even  with  the  top  of  the  ridge.  In  the 
trench  stand  up  the  celery  three  or  four  stalks  thick,  pack  them  tightly 
and  fasten  them  in  place  with  loose  soil  packed  against  the  root  by  hand. 
When  the  trench  is  thus  filled,  run  a  plow  alongside  throwing  the  furrow 
slice  against  the  celery,  and  open  the  new  furrow  close  alongside  with  a 
spade,  the  same  as  tiie  first,  and  repeat  the  operation  of  packing  in  more 
celery.  On  the  other  side  of  the  original  ridge  perform  the  same  opera- 
tion. When  this  is  done  throw  several  furrows  on  the  outside  of  both 
sides  of  the  celery  bed.  Cover  the  celery  with  five  or  six  inches  of  hay 
and  that  with  four  or  five  inches  of  long  stable  manure. 

983.  Q.  Are  weeds  multiplying  on  the  farms  of  the  United  States  ? 

A.  Yes  ;  to  such  an  alarming  extent  as  to  clearly  demonstrate  a  want 
of  energy  on  the  part  of  the  American  farmer,  particularly  as  the  most 
troublesome  weeds  are  foreigners,  as,  for  example,  the  wild  oat,  ox-eye 
daisy,  thistle,  burdock  and  wild  mustard.  Weeds  are  objectionable  because 
they  extract  fertilizing  parts  from  the  soil,  drawing  upon  that  food  which 
should  be  used  by  the  cultivated  crops.  Weeds  increase  the  labor  of 
working  crops.  They  crowd  a  valuable  -crop  so  that  it  diminishes  pro- 
duct, and  they  add  to  the  labor  of  cleaning  the  grain  crops  for  market. 
Few  weeds  are  of  any  use  for  either  man  or  beast,  generally  being  bitter 
or  acrid  in  taste. 

984.  Q.  Where  is  conducted  the  best  system  of  investigation  into  the 
subject  of  plant  nutrition  ? 

A.  At  the  Dramstadt  Experimental  Station,  where  the  tests  are  all 
made  in  zinc  tubs  and  pots,  thousands  of  them,  the  largest  about  thirty 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS.  177 

inches  in  diameter  and  forty  inclies  deep,  the  smallest  pots  about  ten 
inches  in  diameter.  Tlie  station  grounds  occupy  about  three  and  a  lialf 
acres,  and  are  so  arranged  that  the  pots  are  moved  by  tram  cars  in  the 
open  air  on  days  not  raining,  but  kept  under  cover  during  inclement 
weather.  While  the  conditions  of  pot  culture  are  not  the  same  as  in  the 
open  field,  it  is  nevertheless  the  most  exact  system  of  research  into  the 
growth  of  plants,  soil  exhaustion  and  soil  drainage,  as  the  pots  can  be 
brought  under  the  control  and  protection  of  the  experimenter,  while  in 
the  open  field  all  sorts  of  complications  arise. 

985.  Q.  What  is  the  soil  in  relation  to  vegetation  ?  rpj^^  g^^^^ 
A.  It  is  both  a  laboratory  and  a  mine.     Certainly  our  own  rich,  black 

prairie  soils  are  mines  containing  the  vegetable  accumulations  of  genera- 
tions, but  unfortunately  by  bad  systems  of  cropping  they  are  being  ex- 
hausted. Of  course  the  soil  is  also  a  laboratory,  for  all  applied  manures 
must  pass  through  chemical  changes  and  combinations  effected  to  fit  them 
for  food  for  plants.  A  very  small  portion  of  the  commercial  fertilizers 
are,  as  applied  to  the  soil,  in  a  condition  to  be  at  once  taken  into  plant 
systems  simply  by  being  dissolved  in  water,  they  have  to  undergo  more 
or  less  change.  If  this  were  not  so  their  action  would  be  as  quick  and 
transient  as  a  flash  of  gunpowder,  whereas  they  often  take  two  or  three 
years  to  cease  their  activity. 

986.  Q.  I  never  can  grow  a  crop  of  perfect  ears  of  sugar  corn,  the  soft  Corn  Grub. 
grain  always  being  badly  cut  by  a  grub  in  the  husk.     Can  I  prevent  it? 

A.  The  moth  lays  its  eggs  on  the  ear  when  it  is  very  small,  and  the 
caterpillars  are  ready  to  enter  the  ear  before  it  is  half  grown.  Without  a 
trial  in  the  case  the  writer  would  venture  to  suggest  the  enveloping  of 
the  immature  ear  by  bands  of  loose  paper,  or  envelop  them  in  loose  paper 
bags  like  grape  growers  envelop  grape  bunches,  but  it  would  be  necessary 
to  permit  the  silk  at  the  end  of  the  ear  to  protrude,  otherwise  pollination 
would  not  take  place.  This  very  exposure  of  the  end  of  the  ear  might 
defeat  the  effort  to  preserve  it  from  the  attacks  of  the  grub,  for  it  might 
afford  a  fit  resting  place  for  a  late  flight  of  moths  to  deposit  their  eggs. 

987.  Q.  Are  there  insects  beneficial  to  agriculture  ?  Beneficial 
A.  There  are  thousands  assisting  in  the  pollination  of  flowers,  and  insects. 

thousands  of  others  destroying  noxious  species  of  insects.  It  is  estimated 
there  are  in  the  world  twenty  millions  of  species  of  insects,  and  it  is  cal- 
culated that  a  million  or  more  are  advantageous  to  agriculture.  About 
ten  thousand  species  of  predaceous  or  parasitic  insects  are  known  in  the 
United  States,  but  it  will  not  do  for  the  agriculturist  to  lay  by  and  hope 
for  nature  to  send  to  his  aid  a  flight  of  insectivorous  insects  to  eat  up 
others,  for  the  beneficial  hosts  are  small  in  numbers  as  compared  with  the 
injurious  forms.  The  well-known  snake  feeder  or  dragon  fly,  so  common 
in  Summer,  is  a  showy  representative  of  beneficial  insects,  as  it  lives  upon 
others,  which  it  kills. 

988.  Q.  What  are  the  names  of  twenty  or  thirty  of  the  most  common  weeds. 


178 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS. 


Turnips. 


Nitrogenous 
Maniires. 


weeds  found  among  the  crops  of  the  ordinary  farmer  of  the  South  Atlan- 
tic States  ? 

A.  The  writer  cannot  undertake  to  name  all  or  even  the  most  promi- 
nent, for  those  particularly  noticeable  in  one  section  are  less  so  in  another, 
but  the  following  list  alphabetically  arranged  will  certainly  include 
many  of  the  most  troublesome  : 


Amaranthus  or  Pigwig. 

Bone-set  or  Indian  Sage. 

Bramble  or  Blackberry. 

Burdock. 

Buttercup  or  Crowfoot. 

Chickweed  or  Mouse  Ear. 

Cheat  or  Chess. 

Cockle  Burr  or  Clot  Burr. 

Corn  Cockle  or  Agrostemina. 

Catnip  or  Catmint. 

Daisy  or  "White  Weed. 

Dock  or  Rumex. 

Dodder  or  Flax  Vine. 

Dandelion  or  Taraxacum. 

Garlic. 


Lamb's  Quarter  or  Goosefoot. 

Milk  Weed  or  Silk  Weed. 

Mullein  or  Velvet  Plant. 

Night  Shade  or  Bitter  Sweet. 

Plantain  or  Buck  Horn. 

Purslane  or  Pussley. 

Rag  Weed  or  Bitter  Weed, 

Sorrel  or  Oseille. 

Smart  Weed  or  Knot  Weed. 

Shepherd's  Purse. 

Stramonium  or  Jimson  Weed. 

Thistle. 

Wild  Carrot. 

Wild  Mustard  or  Charlock. 

Wild  Radish. 


Indian  Mallow  or  Abutilon. 

989.  Why  is  it  that  you  recommend  the  growing  of  turnips  as  a  restora- 
tive crop  ? 

A.  Because  they  can  only  be  successfully  grown  after  a  good  manuring, 
and  after  proper  preparation  of  the  land,  the  two  operations  being  very 
obviously  in  the  direction  of  high  farming,  the  manure  applied,  generally 
barnyard  manure,  is  only  partially  used  by  the  turnip,  a  large  proportion 
being  available  to  following  crops.  The  turnip  tops  all  go  back  on  the 
land  either  directly  or  as  manure,  and  the  roots,  if  used  in  the  stable  in 
fattening  stock,  are  to  a  large  extent  voided  by  the  animals,  this  ex- 
crement containing  quite  70  per  cent,  of  the  nitrogen  of  the  crop.  Milch 
cows  retain  a  larger  proportion  of  the  nitrogen  than  beef  cattle.  The 
turnip  leaves  which  are  returned,  contain  a  large  proportion  of  nitrogen 
also,  and  are  worth  double  their  cost.  Thus  the  thorough  preparation  of 
the  land,  the  manuring  for  the  crop,  the  large  yield  of  leaves  from  the 
crop,  cattle  excrement  returned,  all  go  to  bring  up  the  land  to  a  high 
level  of  fertility  and  general  condition.  Consequently  on  farms  where 
turnips  are  largely  grown  for  cattle  food,  the  general  character  of  the  soil 
is  annually  improved. 

990.  Q.  What  is  the  effect  of  large  applications  to  cattle  root  crops  of 
nitrogenous  manures,  as  rich  barnyard  manure,  nitrate  of  soda  and  cot- 
ton seed  cake  ? 

A.  They  add  very  largely  to  the  gross  return,  the  tons  harvested,  but 
the  percentage  of  sugar,  the  fattening  ingredient  in  the  roots,  is  not  so 
high  as  in  a  smaller  crop  grown  from  less  nitrogen.     In  other  words. 


QUERIES  AND   ANSWERS.  179 

nitrogen  produces  large  crops  of  roots  aggregating  a  large  amount  of 
sugar,  but  seemingly  not  in  proportion  to  the  nitrogen  supplied.  An 
excess  of  nitrogen  gives  great  leaf  luxuriance,  and  keeps  the  plants  unripe 
late  into  the  season.  As  an  adjunct  to  nitrogen  as  a  food  to  root  crops, 
potash  is  very  important,  the  increase  of  sugar  being  much  influenced  by 
the  amount  of  potash. 

991.  Q.  Can  I  get  good  crops  of  truck  by  using  600  to  700  pounds  of  super- 
superphosphate  to  the  acre  ?  phosphates, 

A.  Generally  you  can  look  for  good  results,  but  you  don't  get  enough 
potash  in  ordinary  superphosphate.  As  a  rule,  years  of  use  and  almost 
entire  reliance  upon  superphosphate  have  brought  about  on  garden  soils 
a  potash  impoverishment  which  seriously  affects  results.  Potash  is 
required  largely  by  corn,  clover,  potatoes,  and  is  eagerly  assimilated  by 
all  garden  vegetables,  in  fact  it  is  never  out  of  place.  Don't  adhere 
entirely  to  superphosphates.  Its  makers  don't  profess  to  furnish  much 
potash.  You  can  get  potash  in  wood  ashes,  and  it  is  safe  to  apply  one 
ton  or  fifty  bushels  to  the  acre,  or  you  can  get  it  in  muriate  of  potash, 
using  200  or  250  pounds  to  the  acre.  Nitrate  of  soda  can  be  applied,  using 
300  or  400  pounds  to  the  acre.  The  urine  of  animals  is  especially  rich  in 
potash  and  should  all  be  saved  by  absorbents  placed  in  the  barnyard,  and 
the  manure  pile  should  be  kept  under  a  shed  and  not  be  exposed  to  the 
leeching  effects  of  rain. 

992.  Q.  Is  the  sweet  potato  of  the  same  family  as  the  yam.  Sweet 
A.  No,  they  are  of  distinct  genera,  the  sweet  potato  being,  it  is  thought,  Potato. 

a  native  of  Central  America.  In  1526  it  was  in  general  cultivation  in  St. 
Domingo  and  other  West  India  islands.  Botanically  it  belongs  to  the 
Convolvulus  family  of  dicotyledonous  plants.  The  edible  portions  are 
true  roots.  In  China  there  is  an  edible  root  somewhat  resembling  it  but 
of  the  Ipomsea  family.  The  various  species  of  yams  cultivated  in  the 
United  States  belong  to  the  widely  scattered  Dioscorea  family  and  are 
believed  to  have  been  brought  from  Africa.  They  are  monocotyledonous 
plants,  markedly  distinct  in  this  particular  from  the  dicotyledonous  sweet 
potato,  and  the  yams  are  distinct  also  in  their  flowers,  as  in  them  the 
sexes  occur  on  difi"erent  plants,  while  in  the  sweet  potato  the  sexes  are 
found  on  the  same  flower.  The  edible  portion  of  the  yams  are  under- 
ground stems,  while  in  the  sweet  potatoes  they  are  roots.  The  distin- 
guishing qualities  between  the  sweet  potato  and  the  yam  is  too  well 
known  to  need  description. 

993.  Q.  Do  most  garden  vegetable  plants  fertilize  or  pollenize  them-  Pollination. 
selves. 

A.  A  great  many  do  ;  but  quite  as  many  absolutely  require  the  aid  of 
insects  to  carry  the  pollen  from  one  flower  to  another,  or  to  loosen  parts 
of  the  flowers  of  monojcious  plants  that  fertility  may  take  place.  A 
familiar  example  is  found  in  the  bean,  pea,  and  clover  plants,  where  the 
visitation  of  an  insect  at  the  right  time  causes  the  stamens  to  discharge  a 
cloud  of  pollen.     It  is  said  that  bees  when  visiting  the  flowers  of  beans 


180 


QUEEIES  AND   ANSWERS. 


Vegetable 
Growth. 


instinctively  alight  or  creep  upon  the  flower,  so  that  their  weight  causes 
the  pistil  to  protrude  to  receive  the  pollen.  A  hundred  other  instances  of 
equally  curious  character  could  be  quoted.  Prof.  Beale,  of  Michigan, 
has  conducted  experiments  in  the  covering  of  flowers  with  gauze  to  pre- 
vent the  visitation  of  the  flowers  by  insects,  and  reports  in  many  instances 
no  seed  set. 

Sexes  in  994.  Q.  What  are  terms  used  to  indicate  the  sexes  of  vegetable  plants? 

Flowera.  A.  When  the  flowers  have  stamens  alone,  the  vegetable  plant  is  termed 

a  male  or  staminate  plant.  When  with  pistil  alone,  it  is  termed  female  or 
pistillate.  When  both  male  and  female  organs  are  found  on  the  same 
plant,  it  is  termed  a  moncecious  plant.  When  the  male  and  female  organs 
are  found  on  different  plants,  it  is  dimcious.  When  unsexual  or  hermaph- 
rodite flowers  are  on  the  same  plant,  it  is  termed  polygamous.  When, 
male  and  female  flowers  are  both  absent,  it  is  termed  neutral. 

995.  Q.  In  Avhat  form  does  the  growth  of  vegetables  occur? 
A.  By  the  laying  on  of  cells  or  an  increase  of  the  whole  plant.    "Vessels 

producing  vessels  and  cells  producing  cells."  In  animals  every  part  of 
the  frame  and  flesh  is  renewed  from  time  to  time,  it  being  commonly 
understood  there  is  a  complete  change  every  nine  or  ten  years,  but  in 
vegetables,  except  in  leaf  and  bark,  there  is  no  renewal  of  parts  once 
formed,  the  entire  growth  is  in  the  line  of  new  matter  to  be  piled  on  top 
or  on  the  exterior  of  that  already  formed. 

996.  Q.  Is  it  a  good  plan  to  sow  grain  with  young  grass  for  purposes 
of  protecting  it  ? 

A.  It  is  a  bad  plan,  as  the  more  vigorous  grain  smothers  the  tender 
grass  in  the  Spring,  making  it  still  more  tender.  Better  get  your  grass 
in  early  in  the  Autumn  so  as  to  give  it  a  good  start,  and  let  it  take  its 
chances,  for  if  well  started  it  won't  need  grain  as  a  nurse. 

997.  Q.  Why  is  the  okra  almost  unknown  in  Northern  markets? 

A.  It  is  preeminently  a  Southern  vegetable,  but  it  can  be  grown  wher- 
ever sugar  corn  will  flourish.  It  is  little  cultivated,  however,  north  of 
Baltimore  ? 

Air  in  the  998.  Q.  Do  roots  of  garden  vegetables  require  much  air  ? 

Soil.  A.  Yes ;  just  as  much  as  leaves,  as  is  proven  by  their  death  when 

deprived  of  air  or  when  grown  in  poisonous  gas,  as  carbonic  acid.  This 
shows  one  of  the  advantages  of  deep  and  frequent  culture.  Neither 
leaves  nor  roots  have  organs  corresponding  to  the  lungs  of  animals  nor 
to  the  gills  of  fish,  but  they  in  some  way  absorb  air  and  make  use  of  it  as 
an  absolute  necessity.  Air  at  the  roots  of  plants  is  necessary  to  present 
the  water  of  the  soil  in  best  condition  for  absorption  by  the  roots,  as  they 
do  not  absorb  water  so  much  as  watery  vapor,  hence  air  is  necessary 
among  other  things  to  absorb  the  water  and  prepent  it  in  vapory  form. 
Seed  999.  Q.  Is  there  any  Government  control  of  the  seed  business  for  pur- 

Control,  poses  of  preventing  fraud  ? 

A.  No  !  But  there  might  be  to  advantage.  Every  department  of 
art  or   science  has  its  humbug,   and    it    would   be  strange  indeed  if 


Sowing 
Grass. 


Okra. 


QUERIES  AND  ANSWERS.  181 

that  one  which  is  the  oldest  and  most  extensively  practiced  was  free. 
Agriculture  and  horticulture  must  be  content  to  bear  their  shares, 
for  like  in  the  treatment  of  weeds,  cast  out  as  many  as  we  will, 
some  germs  remain,  and  like  weeds  with  the  warm  of  returning  Spring, 
the  humbugs  are  reanimated  and  spring  up  with  smiling  faces.  Many 
of  the  State  Experimental  Stations  have  for  some  years  been  engaged 
in  analyzing  commercial  fertilizers  and  publishing  the  results,  all  of 
which  has  been  very  beneficial  as  indicating  to  the  farmer  fraudu- 
lent brands,  consequently  fewer  of  such  are  now  made  than  for- 
merly. It  is  quite  within  the  scope  of  the  work  of  experimental 
stations  to  take  up  the  question  of  seeds  and  to  publish  sworn  reports 
of  vitality  tests  of  seeds  obtained  from  various  seedsmen,  and  the 
results  of  microscopic  examinations  in  search  of  weeds,  imperfect  and 
moldy  seeds  ;  and  -subsequently  reports  of  quality  as  shown  in  the 
experimental  garden.  Such  Seed  Control  Stations,  as  they  are  termed 
in  Europe,  will  certainly  be  established  in  this  country  as  well  as 
abroad,  as  the  work  there  is  much  appreciated,  particularly  in  Germany 
and  Austria.  No  farmers,  no  market  gardeners,  or  private  gardeners, 
as  the  Americans,  sow  so  large  a  proportion  of  poor  seeds,  because 
there  are  so  many  of  such  imported.  Many  European  seedsmen  seem 
to  think  anything  is  good  enough  for  the  American  market,  some  of 
them  sending  here  what  they  would  not  sell  under  their  own  names 
in  their  own  countries.  The  ordinary  farmer  or  gardener  purchases 
the  lowest  price  seed  he  can  get,  and  consequently  he  gets  lots  of 
weed  seeds  in  his  grass  and  clover,  and  the  vegetable  market  gardener 
often  gets  stocks  much  doctored.  A  low  price  for  seed  nowadays  con- 
demns it  in  the  estimation  of  those  who  know,  for  if  it  is  good  it  cannot 
be  priced  below  the  normal  value. 

1000.  Q.  What  is  the  object  of  bleaching  celery  ?  Celery 

A.  Celery  is  bleached  to  get  rid  of  the  acrid  quality  which  is  always  Bleaching^ 
present  in  the  green  chlorophyll  situated  in  the  leaves  between  the  upper 
and  lower  epidermis.    The  chlorophyll  when  green  contains  iron,  an 
essential  to  all  green  plants,  and  is  acrid  and  bitter,  but  bleached  it  loses 
the  iron  and  its  objectionable  flavor  with  it,  and  becomes  mild  and  sweet. 

1001.  Q.  How  late  in  Summer  can  I  plant  garden  seeds  so  that  I  may 

have  a  fair  expectation  of  a  crop  reaching  edible  condition  before  frost?  Seeding 
A.  1.  Average,  and  note  down,  the  date  of  the  first  killing  frost  in  your    **"*****• 
neighborhood. 

2.  Calculate,  and  note  down,  the  number  of  days  required  from  date  of 
germination  to  obtain  edible  condition  required  by  Spring-sown  garden 
crops  in  your  district. 

3.  As  Summer  and  Autumn  crops  generally  grow  slower  than  Spring 
crops,  add  ten  or  fifteen  days  to  the  usual  number  of  days  required  for 
Spring-sown  crops  and  you  have  the  number  of  days  preceding  the  day 
of  frost  required  by  an  Autumn  crop  to  develop  into  edible  condition 

4.  In  Pennsylvania  the  periods  usually  required  for  quickly  developing 


182 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS. 


Breathing 
Pores. 


Mangel 
Wurzel. 


Club 
Koot. 


Sugar 
Corn. 


Rotation. 


garden  vegetables  to  reach  edible  condition  are  about  as  follows  :  peas, 
forty  to  fifty  days  ;  beans,  forty  to  fifty  days  ;  corn,  seventy  to  seventy-five 
days  ;  cucumber,  seventy  to  eighty  days  ;  radish,  eighteen  to  twenty-five 
days  ;  spinach,  forty  to  fifty  days  ;  tomato,  one  hundred  to  one  hundred 
and  twenty  days.  For  Autumn  cropping  add  ten  to  fifteen  days  to  each 
period. 

1002.  Q.  How  many  breathing  pores  are  there  to  the  inch  on  the  leaves 
of  most  garden  vegetables? 

A.  The  pores  are  called  stomata,  and  give  passage  to  air,  serving  the 
purpose  of  expiration  and  inspiration.  On  most  plants  there  are  one 
hundred  to  five  hundred  thousand  to  the  square  incli. 

1003.  Q.  In  what  way  do  Mangel  Wurzel  differ  from  Swede  turnips  ? 
A.  Mangels,  which  are  large  growing  beets,  have  to  be  sown  a  month 

earlier  than  Swedes,  which  are  of  the  turnip  family,  the  Mangels  requir- 
ing a  longer  period  to  develop.  The  Mangel  roots  deeply,  and  is  not  so 
dependent  upon  frequent  rains,  as  it  has  powers  of  accommodation  to  fluc- 
tuating circumstances  greater  than  the  turnip.  It  is  more  leafy,  and  is  a 
plant  requiring  a  higher  temperature  than  the  turnip.  It  is  a  gross 
feeder,  requiring  a  heavy  dressing  of  manure,  and  is  particularly  devel- 
oped in  growth  by  nitrogenous  food. 

1004.  Q.  Part  of  my  truck  patch  was  last  year  affected  by  club  root, 
and  as  I  am  limited  in  capital  I  cannot  afford  to  rent  new  land,  now  what 
can  I  do  to  remedy  the  evil  ? 

A.  In  the  Winter  broadcast  seventy-five  bushels  of  air-slacked  lime  to 
the  acre,  also  one  thousand  pounds  of  kainit,  and  before  seeding  in  the 
Spring,  apply  to  the  acre  four  thousand  gallons  of  water  having  in  solu- 
tion forty  pounds  of  corrosive  sublimate. 

1005.  Q.  When  was  Sweet  or  sugar  corn  introduced  ? 

A.  The  Eight  Rowed  sugar  corn  was  the  first  introduced,  and  while  it 
appeared  generally  in  seed  catalogues  about  1840,  and  was  in  1830  offered 
for  sale  by  one  or  two  leading  seedsmen,  it  was  not  till  about  1850  that  it 
became  generally  appreciated  as  superior  to  the  field  corns  used  generally 
for  "roasting,"  as  corn  was  cooked  in  those  days,  the  varieties  used 
for  table  purposes  being  then  the  Early  Canada,  Horse  Tooth  and  Tusca- 
rora.  But  sweet  corn  was  known  many  years  before,  as  there  are  records 
of  its  existence  among  the  Indians  on  the  Susquehanna  river  as  early  as 
1779.  Pure  sweet  corns  are  nearly  all  very  oily,  very  little  starch  being 
visible,  the  oily  condition  being  expressed  by  the  word  corneous  or 
horny,  and  just  as  soon  as  this  condition  begins  to  breed  out,  such  types 
cease  to  be  true  sugar  corn. 

1006.  Q.  What  is  the  benefit  of  rotation  of  crops? 

A.  A  change  every  year  of  crops  on  a  field,  especially  so  that  the  crops  of 
same  nature  do  not  go  back  for  five  or  six  years,  is  higlily  advantageous,  as 
the  alternating  plants  if  properly  selected  do  not  require  the  same  quanti- 
ties or  conditions  of  plant  food,  and  even  if  the  artificial  additions  of  man- 
ure are  only  moderate  in  quantity,  there  may  be  through  the  processes  of 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS.  183 

soil  decomposition  an  accumulation  of  some  of  the  fertilizing  constituents 
needed  by  the  first  series  of  plants  when  the  time  comes  to  repeat  the 
series.  Another  benefit  of  the  rotation  of  crops  is  that  some  of  the  crops 
are  nearly  all  returned  to  the  land,  while  if  the  cultivation  was  contin- 
uous of  crops  to  be  sold  otf  the  land,  soil  exhaustion  would  be  certain  to 
follow. 

1007.  Q.  Are  there  many  plants  poisonous  to  the  touch?  Poisonons 
A.  There  are  several  plants  poisonous  to  nearly  every  one,  and  many^^****** 

others  poisonous  to  persons  of  peculiar  susceptibilities  ;  for  example  :  the 
poison  ivy,  sometimes  called  poison  oak,  a  climbing  vine,  is  harmless  to 
the  writer,  but  many  people  cannot  touch  it,  some  can  hardly  pass  it  on  the 
leeward  side,  without  being  poisoned,  on  occasions  when  it  has  been  cut 
or  torn,  as  it  then  exudes  a  caustic  milky  juice,  which,  brought  in  contact 
with  the  skin,  develops  blisters.  The  poison  sumac,  a  small  tree  grow- 
ing in  swamps  and  in  damp  places,  exudes  a  sap  which  touching  the 
arms  or  hands  of  many  people  raises  painful  blisters.  The  cultivated 
parsnip  is  poisonous  to  many  people.  There  are  many  plants  poisonous 
when  eaten,  possibly  forty  to  fifty  distinct  genera  in  the  eastern  United 
States,  but  most  of  them  no  sensible  person  would  think  of  eating  for 
none  such  are  attractive.  Animals  sometime  eat  poisonous  plants,  and  no 
doubt  many  mysterious  affections  of  horses  and  cattle  may  be  attributed 
to  this  cause. 

1008.  Q.  Give  me  a  table  of  the  periods  of  time  required  by  garden  Maturity 
vegetables  to  reach  edible  condition  after  germination  ?  of 

A.  Any  data  in  this  line  is  merely  approximative,  as  the  period  is  length-  "*^®setables. 
ened  or  shortened  by  conditions  of  moisture  or  heat,  age  of  seed,  vigor  of 
seedling,  depending  upon  its  physical  condition  and  soil  enrichment.    The 
following  periods  of  days  of  time  are  intended  to  comprehend  the  earliest 
and  the  intermediate,  not  the  periods  of  maturity  of  the  latest  sorts  : 

Radish,  18  to  30  days.  Squash,  80  to  90  days. 

Lettuce,  35  to  35  days.  Cantaloupes,  80  to  90  days. 

Turnip,  40  to  50  days.  Large  onions,  80  to  100  days. 

Spinach,  40  to  50  days.  Carrots,  85  to  90  days. 

Beets,  40  to  50  days.  Watermelons,  90  to  100  days. 

Peas,  40  to  60  days.  Cabbage,  100  to  130  days. 

Beans,  50  to  60  days.  Tomatoes,  100  to  130  days. 

Corn,  70  to  75  days.  Pumpkins,  100  to  120  days. 

Cucumbers,  70  to  80  days. 

1009.  Q.  Tell  me  a  simple  remedy  to  destroy  green  worms  infesting  my  cabbage 
cabbage  plants  ?  Worms. 

A.  When  the  dew  is  on  them,  best  done  at  night,  sprinkle  very  finely 
pulverized  salt  over  the  plants.  The  dew  will  dissolve  the  salt,  and  the 
salted  water  wherever  it  touches  a  green  worm  will  kill  it,  but  don't  salt 
the  plants  too  much  or  they  will  be  killed  also. 

1010.  Q.  Which  kinds  of  field  corn  are  the  quickest  and  most  certain  to  Com 
germinate  ?  Germination. 


184 


QUERIES  AND  ANSWERS. 


Pepper 
Plants.  ■ 


Com, 
Early 
Cultivation. 


Vitality  of 

Cabbage 

Seed. 


Onion 

Sets 
Weights. 


A.  The  Flint  sorts  are  the  quickest  to  sprout  and  the  most  reliable. 
The  softer  the  variety  the  greater  the  possibility  of  decay.  The  pop 
corns  may  be  taken  as  representative  of  the  hardier  sorts. 

1011.  Q.  I  have  a  one-quarter  acre  patch  of  pepper  plants,  very  tall  and 
a  mass  of  foliage,  but  not  a  fruit  set.     Can  you  explain  this? 

A.  It  is  probably  due  to  overmanuring,  inducing  too  luxuriant  a. 
growth,  the  nourishment  necessary  to  produce  flowers  and  fruit  being  all 
taken  up  in  the  formation  of  wood  and  leaf.  Try  root  pruning  by  run- 
ning a  plow  on  one  side,  so  close  as  to  cut  quite  one-third  of  the  roots  of 
every  plant,  this  check  may  cause  the  number  of  blooms  to  increase  and 
fruit  to  set.  While  flowering  and  fruit-bearing  is  an  exhaustive  process 
requiring  a  large  amount  of  nourishment,  it  does  not  advance  the  process 
to  manure  too  highly,  as  it  is  generally  the  half-starved  plants  which  are 
most  productive.  It  is  very  noticeable  that  vegetable  garden  plants  of  an 
usual  number  of  flowers  are  always  weakest  in  growth,  and  conversely, 
the  very  vigorous  growers  produce  few  flowers.  It  is  just  the  same  in 
the  animal  kingdom,  the  herdsman  well  knows  that  a  lean  cow  is  the 
most  reliable  breeder. 

1012.  Q.  Did  the  early  American  Indians  cultivate  corn  to  any  extent  ? 
A.  The  author  takes  the  liberty  of  answering  this  query  by  making 

some  extracts  from  the  pamphlet  of  Dr.  E.  L.  Sturdevant,  South  Farm- 
ingham,  Massachusetts,  "  General  Sullivan  at  the  time  of  his  expedition 
against  the  Indians  in  1779,  destroyed  twenty  thousand  bushels  of  corn 
at  Genesee,  New  York.  De  Nowville,  in  1687,  in  the  same  region,  des- 
troyed twelve  hundred  thousand  bushels.  Fontienack,  in  1697,  employed 
his  army  for  three  days  destroying  corn.  In  the  Pequot  War,  in  1686,  the 
English  destroyed  200  acres  on  Block  Island,  and  in  1675  they  harvested 
1000  acres  of  corn  in  one  place.  General  Wayne,  in  1794,  wrote  of  the 
Delawares  in  Ohio,  'I  never  before  beheld  such  immense  fields  of  corn.' 
In  1498  Columbus  reported  his  brother  as  having  passed  through  eighteen 
miles  of  corn  fields  on  the  Isthmus.  In  1520,  the  ships  of  Magellan  were 
supplied  with  corn  at  Rio  Janeiro." 

1013.  Q.  What  may  be  considered  an  average  of  vitality  of  cabbage 
seed? 

A.  In  1887  the  New  York  State  Experimental  Station  made  tests  of 
164  packets  of  cabbage  seed  procured  from  fifteen  diflferent  seed  mer- 
chants, testing  33,800  seeds  in  samples  of  100  each,  and  found  the  highest 
test  to  be  94  per  cent,  and  the  lowest  48  per  cent.,  the  general  average 
being  76  per  cent.  To  arrive  at  the  various  vitalities  of  same  seed  under 
distinct  tests  the  station  authorities  next  took  several  distinct  samples 
from  each  lot  and  tested  them,  and  found  an  average  variation  of  15  per 
cent,  to  20  per  cent,  between  the  lots  of  seed,  due  to  some  slight  difference 
in  soil  or  atmospheric  conditions.  An  illustration  that  little  reliance  can 
be  placed  on  tests  unless  reported  at  difl"erent  intervals  and  under  different 
circumstances  and  the  average  result  calculated. 

1014.  Q.  What  is  the  legal  weight  for  a  bushel  of  Onion  Sets? 


QUERIES  AND   ANSWERS.  185 

A.  There  is  no  fixed  weight,  and  there  could  not  be,  for  they  are  con- 
stantly decreasing  in  density  by  evaporation  of  moisture.  Two  bushels 
measured  and  stored  away  in  September  will  not  measure  more  than  one 
bushel  in  March.  On  October  1,  the  Bloomsdale  Farm  sets  weighed  forty- 
four  pounds  to  the  bushel,  as  measured,  but  they  are  not  sold  by  weight, 
but  by  measure. 

There  are  all  sorts  of  ways  of  selling  sets — some  people  give  thirty-two 
pounds,  others  a  stroke  bushel,  others  a  heaped  bushel,  and  prices  vary 
accordingly.  As  an  example,  $3.25  for  a  bushel  of  thirty-two  pounds  is 
no  cheaper  than  $3  for  a  bushel  of  forty-two  pounds.  By  reason  of 
shrinkage  they  increase  in  value  quite  twenty  to  twenty-five  cents  per 
month  per  bushel. 

1015.  Q.  What  is  the  annual  quantity  of  potatoes  imported?  Potatoes 
A.  For  the  year  ending  June,  1894,  the  quantity  was  over  three  million  ^^po^ted. 

bushels,  valued  at  over  one  and  a  quarter  millions  of  dollars,  Scotland 
sending  over  one-half  of  the  total  quantity. 

1016.  Q.  Will  it  pay  me  as  a  market  gardener  to  devote  one  of  my  glass  Market 
houses  to  the  Winter  culture  of  tomatoes  ?  Gardening 

A,  It  will  if  you  are  an  expert  in  such  work,  or  are  quick  to  learn.  ^^•^•^'' 
The  house  should  be  separated  from  others,  as  they  might  be  sometimes 
too  high  in  temperature,  and  other  times  too  low.  The  mercury  in  a 
tomato  house  may  vary  from  seventy  to  ninety  degrees  during  the  day, 
should  not  fall  below  sixty-five  to  seventy-five  degrees  during  the  night. 
There  should  be  head  room  of  quite  five  feet  between  the  soil  of  the 
benches  and  the  glass  to  admit  of  space  for  the  extension  of  the  vines. 
The  plants  should  be  set  about  fifteen  inches  apart  and  trimmed  to  single 
stalks,  these  trained  to  sticks  or  cords.  Early  sorts  should  ripen  fruit  in 
about  110  days  from  the  germination  of  the  seed.  Natural  pollination 
of  tomatoes  under  the  conditions  of  glass-house  culture  is  not  sufiicient  to 
give  a  full  crop,  hence  the  pollination  must  be  assisted  by  artificial  means. 
This  can  be  done  by  jarring  the  pollen  from  the  flowers  into  a  spoon,  and 
thrusting  into  the  spoon  the  stigma  of  the  flower  to  be  fertilized.  It  is 
important  that  this  be  done  thoroughly,  as  imperfect  pollination  results 
in  imperfect  fruit  and  a  small  crop.  When  the  fruit  becomes  heavy  the 
strain  should  be  taken  ofi"  the  plant  by  artificial  support  given  to  the 
fruit.  A  plant  should  give  about  three  pounds  of  fruit.  For  under-glass 
culture  try  the  three  Landreth  Cross-Bred  Varieties,  the  Red  Cross,  the 
Purple  Cross  and  the  Two-Celled  Cross,  all  entirely  distinct  from  any  of 
the  standard  sorts.  Very  early,  very  prolific,  very  deep  in  shape,  very 
solid  and  smooth. 

1017.  Q.  Is  the  nutritive  or  feeding  value  of  all  turnips  or  all  beets  the  reeding 

same  ?  Talue 

A.  Very  different ;  not  only  between  the  families  of  turnips  and  beets,  of 
but  between  the  sorts  of  each  family,  and  still  again  between  the  crops  of'^"^**'P* 
the  same  sort  grown  on  fields  of  different  quality,  or  different  manuring,  Beets. 
or  grown  after  different  periods  of  drilling,  or  under  varying  conditions  of 


186 


QUERIES  AND  ANSWERS. 


solar  light,  and  consequent  upon  diflferent  degrees  of  maturity.  Cattle- 
feeding  roots  are  largely  composed  of  water  ranging  from  80  to  90  per 
cent.,  consequently  the  nutritive  value  is  measured  by  the  amount  of  dry 
matter  which  varies  in  white  turnips  from  7  to  9  per  cent. ;  yellow  turnips 
8  to  10  per  cent.;  Swedish  turnips  10  to  13  per  cent.;  mangel  wurzels  10 
to  14  per  cent.  To  be  more  exact,  in  the  estimate  of  value  must  be  con- 
sidered the  amount  of  sugar  in  this  dry  matter,  and  it  may  be  approximately 
stated  as  in  white  turnips  40  to  50  per  cent.,  yellow  turnips  40  to  50  per 
cent.,  Swedish  turnips  50  to  60  per  cent.,  mangel  wurzels  60  to  70  per 
cent.  Sugar  is  technically  known  as  a  carbohydrate,  and  as  a  cattle  food 
it  forms  fat. 

1018.  Q.  I  have  a  good  crop  of  potatoes  this  year,  having  just  put  away, 
my  crop  from  seventeen  acres  of  3380  bushels,  or  360  bushels  to  the  acre. 
Is  that  quantity  often  grown  ? 

A.  No,  it  is  not ;  800  bushels  is  a  big  crop  of  well-sorted,  fairly 
measured  potatoes.  On  that  quantity  most  farmers  would  be  glad  to  com- 
promise as  a  regular  return  for  a  term  of  years,  but  occasionally  it  is  ex- 
ceeded not  only  twice,  but  three  times  ;  for  instance,  at  the  Chicago 
Exhibition  there  was  shown  by  New  York  State  farmers  samples  of  crops 
certified  to  be  grown  from  measured  acres  of  the  following  varieties  and 
quantities  : 

Maggie  Murphy,  810  bushels. 

Ideal,  675  bushels. 

Earls  Rochester,  656  bushels. 

White  Flower,  640  bushels. 

Albany  Seedling,  574  bushels. 

1019.  Q.  Name  me  some  good  sorts  of  potatoes,  early,  medium  and 
late. 

A.  For  tery  early. — Early  Ohio,  Irish  Cobbler,  Bliss  Triumph. 

For  medium  early. — Early  Vermont,  Reeves  Rose,  Holton  Rose. 

For  late. — Freeman,  Green  Mountain,  State  of  Maine,  Peerless,  Gar- 
field, Rural  New  Yorker,  American  Giant,  Rural  Blush. 

1030.  Q.  To  what  botanical  family  does  the  squash  and  pumpkin 
belong? 

A.  They  are  not  of  one  family,  but  of  two  distinct  characters,  the  squashes 
being  of  the  genus  Cucurbita  maxima  while  the  pumpkins  are  of  the 
genus  Cucurbita  pepo.  Botanists  classify  them  according  to  the  forma- 
tion of  their  leaves  ;  for  instance,  those  of  entire  or  undivided  leaves  are  of 
the  maxima  or  squash  family,  comprising  the  Hubbard,  Marblehead, 
Boston,  Mammoth,  Fordhook,  Chili,  Red  Turban,  Bologne,  Etampes, 
Sweet  Potato,  Winter  Crook  Neck,  and,  strange  to  say,  the  Cheese  and 
Cashaw,  ordinarily  called  pumpkins  ;  while  on  the  other  hand,  those  of 
subdivided  or  cut  leaves  are  of  the  pepo  or  pumpkia  family,  represented 
by  the  Negro  pumpkin,  the  Yellow  Field,  Nantucket,  Golden  Summer 
Crook  Neck,  White  Bush,  the  last  two  ordinarily  called  squashes.  The 
undivided  or  entire  leaves  of  the  maxima,  while  hairy  on  the  surface  and 


QUERIES   AND  ANSWERS.  187 

on  the  leaf  stalks,  difFer  from  the  cut  or  divided  leaves  of  the  pepo  fam- 
ily, as  the  leaves  of  this  last  are  much  more  harsli  and  bear  upon  the  foot 
stalks  quite  stiff  and  spiny  thorns.  Another  difference  is  that  the  maxima 
or  squash  family,  as  a  rule,  develop  thick,  swollen,  vpoody  fruit  stalks, 
and  their  blossoms  generally  are  lemon  colored,  while  those  of  the  cut- 
leaf  sorts  produce  small  fruit  stalks  and  the  blossoms  are  generally  orange 
in  color.  This  classification,  made  according  to  form  of  leaves,  character 
of  spines  and  fruit  stalks,  mixes  up  familiar  pumpkins  and  squashes  to  a 
puzzling  extent,  as  under  it  Early  White  Bush  squash  becomes  classed  as 
a  pumpkin  and  Cashaw  pumpkin  becomes  classed  as  a  squash.  For 
practical  purposes  the  farmer's  test  is  the  best,  and  that  is,  when  he  can 
stick  his  thumb  nail  into  the  rind  after  reaching  full  development  it  is  a 
pumpkin,  when  he  cannot  it  is  a  squash,  as  its  rind  becomes  hard  as 
wood.  A  close  physiological  relationship  is  indicated  and  determined  by 
the  crossing  of  sorts,  which  will  occur  freely  if  they  belong  to  the  same 
family,  and  seldom  in  cases  where  they  are  of  distinct  families. 

1021.  Q.  Down  here  in  Louisiana,  large  quantities  of  crude  molasses  iviolasses  a 
are  allowed  to  goto  waste,  and  I  write  to  inquire  the  value  of  molasses  as  Cattle 

a  food  for  cattle  and  pigs  ?  ^*'**'*' 

A.  Forty  years  ago  Dr.  Lawes,  of  Rothamstead,  conducted  experi- 
ments to  determine  the  value  of  sugar  as  a  food  for  pigs,  and  arrived  at 
the  conclusion  that  sugar  had  tlie  same  high  value  as  pure  starch.  Since 
then  Letimen,  of  Gottingen,  has  tried  feeding  sugar  to  sheep,  and  found 
it  of  the  same  value  as  the  non-nitrogenous  ingredients  of  other  cattle 
foods.  His  experiments  were  satisfactory  but  developed  nothing  remark- 
able with  respect  to  the  nutrition  of  sheep.  Subsequently  he  tried  sugar 
on  several  lots  of  pigs,  and  found  in  all  cases  that  its  addition  to  the  regu- 
lar ration  increased  the  amount  of  total  food  consumed  and  increased  cor- 
respondingly the  weight  of  pork.  The  estimate  of  increase  being  three- 
tenths  of  a  pound  of  live  weight  for  each  pound  of  sugar  consumed,  or 
stated  in  anotlier  way,  one  pound  of  gain  in  meat  was  produced  by  three 
and  one-third  pounds  of  sugar.  By  the  results  of  these  experiments  it 
would  seem  well  worth  while  to  utilize  a  portion,  if  not  the  whole,  of 
the  molasses  wasted.  It  might  be  used  with  some  absorbent  and  kept  in 
silos.  It  should  not,  however,  be  used  without  caution,  as  it  contains 
various  salts  which  might  make  it  strongly  purgative.  In  no  case  could 
it  be  depended  on  as  a  complete  and  only  food. 

1022.  Q.  Is  there  more  than  one  kind  of  mint?  Mint. 
A.  There  are  three  plants  to  which  this  name  is  applied  : 

1.  Spearmint,  a  native  of  Europe,  botanically  known  as  Mentha  viri- 
dia.  This  is  used  for  seasoning.  It  flourishes  in  a  cool,  moist  soil  and  a 
bed  of  it  will  last  for  several  years. 

2.  Peppermint.  This  is  cultivated  largely  for  its  oil,  the  census  reports 
showing  about  6000  acres  are  cultivated  in  the  United  States. 

3.  Catmint  or  catnip  is  a  plant  distinct  from  the  two  preceding.  It  also 
furnishes  an  essential  oil,  aromatic,  stimulative  and  anti-spasmodic.    It 


188 


QUERIES  AND   ANSWERS, 


Germmation 
of  Lettuce. 


flourishes  in  the  Southern  States,  and  by  some  is  used  in  Summer  drinks 
as  a  substitute  for  spearmint,  which  is  the  proper  article  for  such  purposes. 

1023.  Q.  Wliy  is  it  that  July  and  August  sowings  of  lettuce  seed  so 
frequently  fail  to  germinate.  I  live  in  Florida,  and  Midsummer  sowings 
of  lettuce  are  the  most  profitable.  I  attributed  the  failure  to  getting  old 
seed,  but  I  have  had  the  same  seed  to  give  good  results  sown  at  a  later 
period  ? 

A.  This  is  clearly  attributable  to  unfavorable  conditions.  You  may 
have  put  it  into  soil  too  dry  to  afford  the  necessary  moisture  to  swell  the 
seed,  or  if  swollen,  the  germ  may  have  been  parched  by  earth  burning 
hot,  or  you  may  have  covered  the  seed  too  deeply,  some  lettuce  seed 
should  never  be  covered,  but  just  tramped  or  patted  down.  The  follow- 
ing is  an  exact  copy  of  a  letter  received  from  a  seed  merchant  to  whom 
the  firm  of  the  writer  sold  some  lettuce  seed. 

"I  regret  exceedingly  that  I  was  misled  by  Truckers  in  regard  to 
the  germination  of  your  Royal  Cabbage  lettuce  seeds,  and  I  now  find 
that  they  were  impatient,  unreasonable  and  their  reports  entirely  un- 
true, as  I  sowed  j^our  seeds  in  a  box,  on  the  2d  of  this  month,  and 
I  find  them  up  well  this  morning,  and  besides,  one  of  the  men  who 
had  this  seed  told  me,  not  ten  minutes  ago,  that  his  was  up  too  thick  and 
that  others  in  his  section  told  him  yesterday  that  it  was  now  coming  up 
nicely,  and  I  now  write  to  apologize  to  your  firm,  as  I  feel  very  sorry 
for  what  I  said  two  or  three  days  ago,  believing  as  I  then  did,  from  the 
reports  of  so  many,  that  the  seeds  were  worthless." 

1024.  Q.  Furnish  me  with  a  list  of  two  or  three  sorts  of  each  leading 
table  vegetable  suitable  for  a  family  garden  in  the  vicinity  of  Baltimore. 

Peas. — Extra  Early,  American  Wonder,  Bloomsdale,  Phonograph. 

Beans. — Red  Valentine,  Landreths'  Scarlet,  Pink  Eye  Wax,  Pole 
Lima. 

Corn. — Crosby,  Landreths'  Sugar,  Evergreen. 

Cabbage. — Early  Jersey  Wakefield,  Reedland  Early  Drumhead,  Blooms- 
dale  Large  Late  Flat  Dutch. 

Carrot. — Pointed  Horn,  Ox  Heart. 

Celery. — Paris  Golden,  White  Plume. 

Cucumber. — First,  Landreths'  Choice,  White  Spine. 

Egg  Plant — Thornless. 

Kale. — Bloomsdale  Extra  Curled. 

Lettuce. — Forcing,  Virginia  Solid  Header,  Bloomsdale  Reliable. 

Watermelon. — Boss,  Arkansas  Traveler,  Long  Light  Icing. 

Cantaloupe. — Jennie  Lind,  Anne  Arundel,  Missouri. 

Onion. — Bloomsdale  Pearl,  Bermuda  Red,  Hard  Round  Golden. 

Okra. — Long  Green  Pod. 

Parsnip. — Bloomsdale. 

^a(Zi87t.— Landreths'  Earliest,  White  Lady  Finger,  Wonderful  Half 
Long  Red. 

Spinach. — Bloomsdale,  Ever  Ready. 


QUERIES  AND   ANSWERS.  189 

Squas?i. — Extra  Early  Bush,  Golden  Summer. 

Tomato.— ^xtrsi  Early  Richmond,  Acme,  T.T.T. 

Turnip. — Early  Dutch,  Amher  Globe,  Bloomsdale  Swede. 

1025.  Q.  Are  the  original  wild  types  of  our  cultivated  plants  generally  Original 

to  be  found  ?  Types. 

A-  Very  few  of  them.  The  wild  cabbage,  celery  and  beet  are  met  with 
in  Europe,  the  potato  and  tomato  in  South  America,  and  a  few  others 
elsewhere  representative  of  our  garden  plants,  but  very  few.  Still  less  of 
the  cultivated  products  of  the  field,  as  there  is  no  wild  rye,  wheat,  oats  or 
barley,  nor  Indian  corn  in  its  original  condition.  Of  the  origin  of  plants 
in  general  hardly  anything  is  known,  and  very  little  to  be  surmised. 
This  much  is  known,  however,  strange  to  relate,  that  the  United  States 
has  furnished  comparatively  nothing  of  value  among  cultivated  plants  of 
vegetables  or  cereals,  the  principal  nutritious  plants  being  the  Jerusalem 
artichoke  and  the  gourds,  both  of  little  value,  and  among  the  cereals  the 
Wild  Rice.  The  United  States  is  not  an  exception  in  this  particular,  for 
not  a  useful  original  plant  has  ever  been  obtained  in  Australia,  or  New 
Zealand,  or  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  nor  from  South  America,  south  of  the 
Platte.  These  countries  produce  plants  useful  to  savage  man,  but  they 
have  never  been  improved  by  selection,  as  have  the  plants  of  Europe, 
Asia,  Mexico,  Central  America,  Chili  and  Peru,  plants  probably  no  better 
originally,  but  a  clear  demonstration  that  it  was  only  among  the  higher 
civilized  people  of  early  times  that  improvement  by  selection  took  place. 

1036.  Q.  As  in  a  late  letter  you  urged  me  to  adopt  market  gardening  Lettuce. 
under  glass,  let  me  ask  you  to  what  special  crop  would  you  advise  me  to 
give  special  attention  ? 

A.  To  lettuce.  It  is  in  demand  for  fifty-two  weeks  in  the  year,  and 
always,  when  in  fresh  condition,  will  bring  a  good  price.  In  Philadel- 
phia, during  the  months  of  December,  January,  February  and  March, 
good  lettuce  is  sold  by  the  commission  men  to  the  city  storekeepers  at  from 
$5  to  $10  per  hundred  heads.  It  is  generally  highest  in  January  and  Feb- 
ruary, and  assuming  that  its  average  price  then  is  $7  per  100  and  the 
freights  and  commission  $2,  it  leaves  $5  to  the  producer.  When  lettuce  is 
well  grown  sixty  to  seventy-five  heads  will  fill  a  barrel.  In  growing  let- 
tuce it  is  important  to  get  seed  true  to  name  and  of  strong  vitality,  and  of 
habits  of  uniform  development,  that  sections  of  the  forcing  house  may  be 
entirely  cleared  of  crop,  that  the  space  may  be  promptly  recropped  with 
a  fresh  setting  of  lettuce  or  radish.  Two  good  sorts  for  forcing  are  the 
Virginia  Solid  Header  and  Forcing,  the  latter  the  New  York  experimen- 
tal Station  has  pronounced  of  high  merit  for  under-glass  culture. 

1027.  Q.  Is  ensilage  a  good  food  for  horses  ?  EnsUage. 

A.  No ;  it  is  likely  to  produce  colic,  and  weaken  them  generally.  The 
digestive  organs  of  horses  are  different  from  those  of  cattle,  which  are  cud- 
chewing  animals.  Indeed,  ensilage  for  cattle  is  not  always  the  best  food, 
as  it  sometimes  has  the  same  effect  as  brew-house  swill,  causing  cows, 
especially  when  fed  too  long  upon  it,  and  too  exclusively,  to  become 
unhealthy,  to  grow  languid  and  to  lose  their  hair. 


190 


QUERIES  AND  ANSWERS. 


Vegetable 

Forcing 

Houses. 


Potato. 


Depression 
in 

Market 
Gardening. 


1028.  Q.  What  are  the  general  dimensions  of  the  vegetable  forcing 
houses  operated  by  market  gardeners  growing  truck  for  Winter  sales? 

A.  The  writer  knows  of  houses  240  x  30  feet ;  250  x  40  feet ;  400  x  40 
feet ;  1600  x  20  feet.  And  possibly  there  are  yet  more  extended  areas  of 
glass  entirely  devoted  to  growing  vegetables  for  Winter  sale,  as  lettuce, 
radish,  cucumber,  tomato,  watercress. 

1029.  Q.  Is  not  the  potato  one  of  the  most  healthful  foods  ? 

A.  No ;  it  might  more  properly  be  classed,  as  ordinarily  served  on 
the  table,  as  an  unhealthful  food.  The  reason  is  that  the  potato  is  com- 
posed to  a  large  extent  of  starch,  which  to  become  nutritious  has  to 
undergo  a  sugary  change  by  the  action  of  the  stomach  juices,  and  this 
change  is  particularly  slow  in  the  case  of  the  potato,  as  it  is  a  dense  food 
slowly  acted  upon  by  the  digestive  fluids,  and  consequently  it  remains  for 
a  longer  period  in  the  stomach  than  rice  or  any  other  starchy  food.  This 
retention  in  the  stomach  results  in  the  partial  decomposition  of  the  starch, 
the  evolving  of  gases  and  formation  of  combinations  which  distend 
and  irritate  the  stomach  and  intestines,  producing  in  some  persons 
dyspepsia  and  diarrhoea.  Strong  constitutions  apparently  resist  the 
slightest  injurious  influences  from  this  cause,  but  nevertheless  their  diges- 
tive organs  are  at  the  same  time  taxed  to  a  greater  extent  than  if  the  food 
was  rice,  which,  by  the  way,  is  not  a  quickly  digested  food.  Potatoes  as  a 
food  are  most  objectionable  when  fried,  most  wholesome  when  baked. 

1030.  Q.  What  is  the  cause  of  the  depression  in  market  gardening? 

A.  Overproduction,  and  consequently  overcompetition  and  lowering 
of  profits,  the  same  cause  as  produces  agricultural  depression.  Any 
thoughtful  market  gardener  clearly  realizes  the  cause  to  be  the  opening  of 
the  many  and  new  truck-groioing  sections,  almost  limitless,  in  the  South 
Atlantic  and  Gulf  States,  in  the  Middle  Cotton  States,  and  throughout  the 
entire  Mississippi  valley,  all  these  throwing  at  all  seasons  into  all  the 
markets  of  the  country,  especially  the  Northern  cities,  such  an  avalanche 
of  fruit  and  vegetables  as  to  have  almost  completely  obliterated  the 
profits  of  the  Northern  market  gardener,  and  as  well  most  seriously  cut 
down  the  receipts  of  the  Southern  truck  farmer,  the  prevailing  agricultural 
depression  having  turned  to  market  gardening  tens  of  thousands  of  regular 
farmers. 

It  might  in  this  connection  be  asked.  What  has  caused  the  agricultural 
depression?  and  the  reply  is.  The  same  overproduction;  the  result  of 
several  causes.  One,  the  opening  up  in  our  far-Western  country  of  millions 
of  acres  of  new  lands  to  foreigners  to  grow  competing  crops  of  wheat, 
corn  and  potatoes,  which  they  do  at  comparatively  little  expense. 
Another  cause,  the  development  of  field  machinery,  by  which  ten  men  do 
the  work  of  one  hundred  in  the  past,  consequently  every  proprietor  is 
able  to  seed  and  harvest  ten  times  the  number  of  acres.  Another,  the 
development  of  railroad  transportation,  by  which  the  product  of  most  dis- 
tant parts  is  brought  to  the  seaboard  to  compete  with  that  grown  upon 


QUERIES  AND  ANSWERS.  191 

land  in  the  old  States  held  at  $100  per  acre  as  compared  with  $5  land  in  the 
far  West. 

But  an  influence  greater  than  the  three  enumerated  is  the  scaling  down 
of  American  values  of  wheat,  and  by  sympathy  corn  also,  to  the  grain 
prices  of  London,  in  which  market  are  fixed  the  grain  values  of  the  world, 
Jependent  on  the  crops  of  Russia,  India,  Egypt,  New  Zealand,  Australia 
and  South  America.  It  is  these  crops  which  fix  the  value  of  our  crops  in 
America,  for  if  the  price  in  London  is  low,  and  it  generally  is  low,  the 
grain  can  be  sent  from  Europe  to  the  United  States  at  a  cost  of  six  cents 
a  bushel,  and  yet  cheaper  if  sent  from  point  of  production. 

1031.  Q.  What  will  be  the  result  of  the  agricultural  depression?  Agricultwrai 
A.  In  our  late  letter  to  you  we  very  briefly  treated  upon  the  cause  of  ^^P"*®*®^*"^* 

the  agricultural  depression.  The  result  is  a  problem  which  only  time 
can  solve.  But  certain  results  are  very  apparent,  notably  the  frequent 
sheriff"  sales  and  the  abandonment  of  thousands  of  farms  in  all  of  the  old 
Eastern  States,  lands  once  high-priced,  and  yet,  though  depreciated,  too 
expensive  to  cultivate.  Much  has  been  written  about  the  abandoned 
farms  of  New  England,  but  the  same  condition  exists  in  the  Middle 
Eastern  States. 

In  New  Jersey  and  part  of  Pennsylvania  can  be  seen  thousands  of 
abandoned  farms  with  broken-down  barns  and  fences,  tenantless  home- 
steads with  weedy  front-yards.  The  selling  value  of  these  farm  lands  is 
only  one-third  what  it  was  under  the  better  times  of  twenty  to  thirty  years 
ago.  And  though  rents  may  now  be  based  upon  the  reduced  value,  they 
cannot  be  paid  out  of  the  farm  profits  of  ordinary  agriculture,  if  the 
farmer  is  of  the  condition  of  a  proprietor  and  has  to  pay  wages. 

It  seems  manifest  destiny  that  the  day  for  big  farms  in  the  old  States  is 
about  over,  and  that  grain,  grass  and  dairy  lands  will  be  divided  into 
tracts  of  thirty  to  forty  acres,  and  worked  by  small  owners  or  renters,  a 
less  intelligent,  less  progressive  class,  men  who  cannot  aff'ord  to,  or  who 
will  not  purchase  improved  machinery,  or  be  in  anyway  helpful  in  aiding 
advanced  agriculture.  Each  holder  of  this  class,  by  the  aid  of  his  wife^ 
sons  and  daughters,  doing  all  the  work,  no  cash  going  out  to  employes, 
people  satisfied  to  eat  what  they  cannot  sell ;  such  people  will  lay  by 
money,  but  they  do  nothing  to  aid  in  the  development  of  the  science  or 
practice  of  agriculture.  This  is  not  a  very  cheerful  prognostication,  but  it 
may  come  true. 

These  remarks  apply  to  ordinary  farming,  not  market  gardening,  under 
which  more  intensive  system  of  culture  forty  acres  is  frequently  enough, 
as  forty  acres  in  truck  requires  the  labor  of  five  or  six  men  and  as  much 
outlay  in  manure,  live  stock  and  implements,  ability  and  effort  as  five 
times  that  average  in  crops  of  grain,  potatoes  and  grass. 

1032.  Q.  What  is  a  practical  proof  of  the  activity  of  bacteria  in  the  ^         . 
soil  ? 

A.  It  has  been  proven  by  the  Rothamstead  Experimental  Station  that 
nodules  growing  on  the  roots  of  leguminous  plants,  as  peas  or  clover, 


192 


QUERIES   AND  ANSWERS. 


assimilate  nitrogen  both,  from  the  soil  and  by  fixation,  and  the  evidence 
of  fixation  of  nitrogen  has  been  i^roven  by  Dr.  Gilbert  in  his  experiments 
•witli  leguminous  plants  grown  on  land  made  free  from  nitrogen,  but  sub- 
sequently inoculated  with  bacteria  soil,  the  nitrogen  obtained  being  only 
from  the  air  and  through  the  active  agency  of  the  bacteria. 

jjjp,^  1033.  Q.  Which  of  all  the  counties  in  the  United  States  is  the  leading 

Agricultural  one  in  agricultural  produce  ? 

Counties.  j^_  Lancaster,  Pa      It  is  thirty-three  miles  long  by  twenty-eight  wide, 

and  comprises  928  square  miles.  Part  of  it  has  been  cultivated  since 
1709,  and  yet  it  has  not  a  single  acre  of  worn-out  laud.  It  contains 
9070  farms,  valued  at  sixty-nine  million  dollars,  and  produced  last  year 
farm  produce  of  the  value  of  nine  million  dollars,  or  fifty  per  cent, 
greater  than  any  other  county  in  the  United  States.  A  leading  produc- 
tion for  years  has  been  tobacco,  of  which  in  1889  the  value  was  one  and 
one-third  million  dollars.  Lancaster  county  contains  325  grist  mills,  and 
last  year  wintered  forty  thousand  stall-fed  cattle.  The  other  counties 
in  the  United  States  producing  the  highest  value  of  agricultural  products 
is  St.  Lawrence,  N.  Y.,  producing  six  millions  of  dollars,  but  its  area  is 
three  times  as  large  as  Lancaster.  Tlie  third  productive  county  is 
Chester,  Pa.,  one  quarter  smaller  than  Lancaster,  producing  nearly  six 
millions  of  dollars.  The  fourth  county  in  production  is  Bucks,  Pa. ,  one- 
third  smaller  than  Lancaster,  producing  five  and  one-half  millions  of 
dollars  last  year.  It  is  in  Bucks  county  where  is  situated  Bloomsdale 
Farm. 

Com  Crops.  1034.  Q.  Maryland  is  not  far  behind,  for  I  have  just  measured  up  my 
corn  crop  of  1479  shelled  bushels  grown  on  seventeen  acres.  Is  that 
quantity  of  eighty-seven  bushels  to  the  acre  often  exceeded  ? 

A.  Not  often  exceeded  in  general  cropping,  for  eighty -seven  bushels  is 
a  most  admirable  product,  but  it  is  not  as  much  as  often  grown  in  the 
crack  counties  of  Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  Lancaster,  Chester  and  Bucks, 
where  there  are  many  records  of  over  100  bushels,  and  as  high  as  127, 
which  was  certified  to  by  the  Brandyne  Club  in  1874.  In  1893,  a  Penn- 
sylvania farmer  exhibited  at  the  Chicago  Exhibition  a  lot  of  corn,  part  of 
the  product  from  a  twelve-acre  field  which  gave  1320  bushels,  or  110 
bushels  to  the  acre. 

Ensilage.  1035.  Q.  What  is  meant  by  ensilage  ? 

A.  The  principle  involved  is  the  preservation  of  green  forage  in  cellars 
or  pits  through  the  exclusion  of  air,  the  green  stuff  being  put  in  so  tightly 
as  to  drive  out  very  nearly  all  the  air,  and  the  material  kept  so  com- 
pressed as  to  continue  to  keep  out  very  nearly  all  air.  Some  will  remain, 
but  this,  after  a  time,  is  changed  by  fermentation  to  carbonic  acid  gas, 
filling  all  interstices,  excluding  other  air  and  holding  the  green  forage  in 
a  bath  of  gas,  in  which  condition  all  decomposition  is  arrested.  The 
forage  changes  its  color  in  the  pits,  and  a  vinegary  odor  becomes  very 
perceptible,  the  material  becoming  more  digestible  than  it  was  in  its 
green  condition. 


QUERIES   AND   ANSWERS.  193 

It  is  the  cheapest,  most  economical  and  satisfactory  way  of  feeding 
milking  cows,  not  used  exclusively,  but  in  connection  with  a  proportion 
of  cake  meal,  and  with  a  proportion  of  dry  hay  or  fodder.  Cows  thus 
fed  thrive  well  and  milk  freel3\  giving  sweet  milk,  making  good  butter. 
For  this  reason  it  is  every  day  growing  in  favor,  especially  as  it  is  so 
palatable  and  easily  digestible.  The  ensilage  of  the  present  day  is  made 
from  well-grown,  well-matured,  well-eared  corn— of  course  taken  in 
green  condition,  chopped  into  pieces  of  about  one  and  one-half  inches  in 
length.  White  Sheep  Tooth  corn  is  the  best  for  the  purpose,  being  very 
abundant  in  the  production  of  foliage. 

1036.  Q.  What  is  the  object  or  work  of  the  Agricultural  Stations  ?  Agricultural 
A.  By  their  investigations  they   protect  the  farmer  against  sales  of 

fraudulent  fertilizers  and  cattle  foods.  They  study  cattle  diseases  and 
advise  preventive  measures ;  they  investigate  the  habits  of  insects 
injurious  to  agriculture  and  designate  methods  of  destroying  them  ;  they 
study  thecharacter  of  fungous  growths  ;  they  inquire  into  methods  of  irriga- 
tion and  into  meteorological  and  climatic  fluctuations  and  results  ;  they 
report  on  qualities  of  soils,  qualities  of  new  cereals,  forage  plants,  vege- 
tables, fibres  and  fruits,  action  of  fertilizers,  plant  nutrition  and  com- 
ponent parts  of  soil  drainage.  They  do  entirely  too  much  to  enumerate 
in  a  short  description  of  their  work,  which  is  an  extensive  line  of  research 
in  the  laboratory  and  hothouse,  in  the  stable  and  dairy,  in  the  orchard, 
forest  and  field.  They  do  so  much  original  work  and  collect  so  much  of 
the  results  of  work  of  other  stations  as  to  be  important  bureaus  of  agricul- 
tural information.  Every  State  has  one  agricultural  station  ;  Connecticut, 
New  York,  Alabama  and  Louisiana,  each  two.  In  the  aggregate  they 
employ  nearly  600  persons,  and  in  1894  issued  over  four  and  one-half 
million  reports  and  bulletins.  The  first  American  agricultural  station 
was  established  in  1875  in  Connecticut,  but  this  was  thirty  years  after  the 
establishment  of  the  first  German  agricultural  station,  which  was  at  Moec- 
kern.  One  of  the  most  interesting  of  the  many  advanced  agricultural 
stations  in  Europe  is  that  of  Darmstadt,  largely  devoted  to  pot  investiga- 
tions, into  plant  nutrition  and  soil  exhaustion. 

1037.  Q.  In  what  way  did  mankind  find  out  what  plants  were  edible?  Edible 
A.  Such  explorers  as  Livingstone,  Hooker,  DeCandolle  and  others,  all  Plants. 

found  that  uncivilized  man  in  all  countries  knows  a  long  catalogue  of 
plants,  more  or  less  nutritious,  others  injurious,  others  destructive  to 
life.  In  Africa  the  natives  in  the  wilder  regions  are  guided  to  a  great 
extent  by  what  the  baboons  and  monkeys  eat.  All  wild  tribes  through 
pressure  of  necessity  have  learned  a  great  deal  as  to  the  effects,  stimu- 
lating, nutritious  and  medicinal,  of  many  of  their  native  plants,  and  a 
consequential  step  is  the  removal  of  these  plants,  or  the  planting  of 
their  seeds  by  the  natives  near  to  their  huts,  and  thus  the  first  steps  are 
taken  in  the  line  of  selection,  to  be  further  continued  by  subsequent 
selections  of  the  best  types,  till  after  a  time  a  heredity  of  form,  color, 
size  and  flavor,  is  well  established.  " 


194 


QUERIES  AND  ANSWERS. 


Plant 

Adaptability 
tu 
Climate. 


Crops  in 
164S. 


Corn  in 
1654. 


1038.  Q.  Do  plants  of  warm  latitudes  adapt  themselves  to  cold 
climates? 

A.  As  a  rule  only  so  far  as  to  quicken  growth,  or  shorten  the  period 
of  life.  Corn,  for  instance,  grown  near  the  limit  of  its  Northern 
localities  of  production,  no  doubt  was  originally  selected  from  Southern 
stocks  of  a  marked  early  habit.  Fixed  types  of  plants  grown  far  North 
do  not  acquire  strength  to  withstand  cold,  simply  a  habit  of  quickly 
maturing  to  escape  cold.  Many  cross-bred  plants,  like  some  tobaccos, 
for  example,  possess  a  precocity  fitting  them  for  Northern  climates 
better  than  the  parents.  Many  natural  conditions  of  plants  can  be 
changed  by  climate  ;  for  example,  the  plants  of  North  America  bloom- 
ing and  fruiting  in  their  own  appointed  seasons  change  their  habits 
when  taken  to  South  America  and  Australia,  where  the  seasons  are 
reversed. 

1039.  Q.  "Why  is  it  that  corn  grown  in  the  cotton  States  when  brought 
as  far  North  as  Pennsylvania  will  not  ripen  ? 

A.  The  planting  of  corn  ripened  under  a  Southern  climate,  in  locali- 
ties far  North  of  its  latitude  of  production,  seems  to  completely  upset 
its  natural  habit,  a  common  occurrence  in  vegetable  life,  as  such  corn 
runs  almost  entirely  to  foliage,  the  function  of  leaf  and  stem  develop- 
ment being  so  stimulated  as  to  completely  displace  the  function  of  seed 
production.  The  cause  of  this  it  is  difficult,  perhaps  impossible,  to 
answer  to  the  satisfaction  of  every  one.  It  may  be  due  to  several 
causes  in  combination,  sometimes  partially  influenced  by  richer  soil, 
more  generally  to  increased  moisture,  or  more  even  distribution  of  rain 
during  the  last  half  of  the  season  of  growth,  a  better  conservation  of 
water,  for  in  Southern  localities  the  evaporation  is  greater,  and  transi- 
tions of  soil  moisture  conditions  more  marked. 

A  Southern  corn  under  any  circumstances  takes  a  greater  number  of 
days  of  growth  to  arrive  at  maturity,  and  when  planted  in  the  North 
simultaneously  with  Northern  corn  continues  vigorous  longer  than  the 
Northern  sort,  so  much  so  as  to  be  in  a  position  to  profit  by  August  and 
September  rains  which  come  too  late  to  extend  the  growth  of  the 
quicker  maturing  Northern  varieties.  Thus  the  formation  of  leaf 
tissue  in  the  case  of  Southern  corn  is  still  further  continued  till  finally 
the  plant,  yet  in  vigorous  growth,  enters  the  moister  seasons  of  the 
Autumn  when  nothing  will  arrest  the  growth  but  frost. 

1040.  Q.  What  kind  of  crops,  if  any,  did  the  early  Indians  cultivate? 
A.  Campanius,  a  Swede,  who  explored  the  valley  of  the  Delaware  in 

1642,  wrote  that  among  the  Indians  he  found  cultivations  of  hops,  grape- 
vines, plum  trees,  maize,  calabash  and  a  fibre  like  hemp. 

1041.  Q.  What  are  some  of  the  earliest  references  to  the  growth  of 
corn  in  Pennsylvania  ? 

A.  In  1654,  Peter  Lindstrom,  a  Swedish  engineer,  surveyed  the  Dela- 
ware river,  and  wrote  that  he  met  with  extensive  cultivations,  by  the 
Indians,  of  corn  ;  the  grain  being  of  various  colors,  white,  black,  red,  blue, 


QUERIES  AND  ANSWERS.  195 

brown,  yellow  and  pied.    That  the  yellow  sorts  were  used  for  making 
bread,  but  that  the  blue,  brown,  black  and  pied  were  used  in  brewing  and 
made  a  strong,  dark-colored  beer. 
1043.  Q.   Will  the  flowers  of  tomato  plants  and  potato  plants  mix  ?         Hybridiza- 
A.  Yes,  they  will  pollenize  in  cases  where  the  plants  be  grown  under  '**"  **  *  '® 
glass  and  very  practical  eS'orts  be  made  to  effect  cross-pollination,  the  potato, 
tomato  crossing  with  the  potato  and  the  potato  with  the  tomato,  but  so 
far  nothing  of  any  value  has  been  obtained  by  such  hybridization.     The 
living  plants  can  also  be  grafted  upon  each  other  ;  for  instance,  a  potato 
plant  can  be  cut  down  to  within  an  inch  or  two  of  the  root  and  a  tomato 
stem  grafted  upon  it,  the  above-ground  plant  being  a  tomato  and  produc- 
ing fine  fruit,  and  the  below-ground  plant  being  a  potato,  producing 
potato  tubers ;  or  to  the  contrary,  a  tomato  plant  can  be  cut  down  to 
within  an  inch  or  two  of  the  soil  and  a  potato  stem  grafted  upon  it.     Of 
course  the  tomato  root  will  not  produce  potatoes,  but  it  will  sustain  the 
potato  top  above  ground  which  will  produce  potato  flowers,  seed  bulbs 
and  sometimes  abnormally  developed  small  potatoes  at  the  axles  of  the 
stems.     These  experiments  are  only  of  value  and  interesting  in  a  physio- 
logical sense,  nothing  practical  or  of  value  can  be  expected  from  them. 


D.  Landreth  &  Sons  -will  at  all  times  be 

PLEASED    TO   RECEIVE   QuERIES    UPON  AGRICULTURAL 

AND  Horticultural  subjects,  and  invite  such 

CORRESPONDENCE. 


INDEX. 


A. 

PAGE. 

Actinism 33 

Adaptability  of  Plants 194 

Adulteration  of  Seeds 136 

Advertising  of  Seeds 145 

Advice,  Agricultural 170 

Adventurous  Plants 161 

Agriculture,  34,  54,  66,  74,  89,  90, 99, 113, 122, 

192 

Agricultural  Societies 54 

Agricultural  Stations.  ...  90, 176,  187, 193 

Air  in  Soil 180 

Air  Plants 100,  105 

Alfalfa 22,  52 

Alluvial  Soils 30 

American  Seeds 160 

Analysis,  Vegetable 64 

Anthracnose 125 

Artificial  Heat 25,27,104 

Artichoke,  French 42,  106 

Arsenic 78 

Ashes 30, 130, 175 

Asparagus 41,  46,  79,  86, 102, 170 

Asphyxiation  of  Insects 116 

Autumn  Leaves 34 

B. 

Bacteria 45, 191 

Barley 38 

Barnyard  Manure 32, 127, 138, 175 

Beans,  14,  45,  46,  47,  48,  51,  52,  56,  57,  58,  72, 

74,  81,  88,  96,  97, 109, 110,  114,  115, 121, 125, 

142,  161 

Beets  .  .  15,  61,  75,  87, 106, 170, 172, 182,  185 

Beet  Sugar 15,  61 

Beneficial  Insects 177 

Bermuda  Grass 49,  58,  86 

Bermuda  Onions 43 

Berries 29 

Bisulphide 71,  147 

Bleaching  Celery 181 

Blight 77 

Bloomsdale  Pea 119 

Blue  Grass 22,  49,  59,  86, 129. 174 

Bones 83, 173 

Bordeaux  Mixture 46,81,120 

Botany 90 

Breathing  Pores 80,182 

Broccoli 2,  72 


PAGE. 

Buckwheat 38 

Bulbs 2,  80 

Butter  Beans 59 

C. 

Cauliflower 39,  70,  87,  88, 122, 127 

Cantaloupes,  7,  8,  86,  99,  109,  110,  117,  122, 

126,  127,  128,  129, 143 

Cabbage,  11, 12,  13,  33,  47,  53,  65,  75,  77,  81, 

84,  88,  90,  93,  94,  96,  106,  110,  113,  116,  118, 

123. 124,  128,  130,  160, 175, 183,  184 

Canada  Blue  Grass 22 

Carbon 31 

Carrot 54, 137 

Canning  Vegetables 61,  62 

Capital 64 

Calico  Bug 95 

Cane 108, 162 

Canaigre 169 

CaroUna  Rock 171 

Carnivorous  Insects 177 

Carnivorous  Plants 69 

Cattle  Food 164 

Celery.  .   .   .18,71,72,98,105,125,176,181 

Chemical  Action 30 

Charleston  Rock 31, 171 

Chickory 71, 112 

Cheat  or  Chess 76 

Club  Root 12,  58,  81, 182 

Clouds 29 

Clover,  Scarlet 23,  77 

Climbers 14,  48, 142 

Cloche 76 

Clover  ....  23,  52,  76,  77, 108, 124, 135, 138 

Climate 131, 136, 193, 194 

Cow  Feed 108, 192 

Cow  Peas 2,  58,  67,  76 

Cows 172,  192 

Corn,  16,  17,  38,  46,  63,  64,  89,  92,  93,  97, 101, 
104,  109,  115,  118,  123,  139,  140,  141,  163, 
168, 170, 175, 177, 182,  183, 184, 192,  193,  194, 

195 

Commercial  Fertilizers,  31,  32,  44,  77,  83, 87, 

89,  108,  137,  173, 179 

Collards 47 

Cotton  Oil 160 

Conch  Grass 49,  52, 112, 174 

Colors 54,  70,  75,  98, 121 


(196) 


INDEX. 


197 


PAGE. 

Cotton 58 

Cos  Lettuce 75 

Cold  Frames 100, 103 

Coffee 71, 112 

Cockle 138 

Cooking  Receipts 154 

Corn  Consumption 38 

Covering  Seeds 59 

Crab  Grass 49,  52, 112, 174 

Crows 45,  121 

Cross  Bred 31, 102 

Cryptogams 105 

Cucumber,  5,  6, 53, 60, 61,  81, 89, 103, 109, 110, 
124,  126, 139,  175 

Culinary  Vegetables 2,  154 

Cutworm 77 

Cultivation 119,  121, 124 

D. 

Darmstadt  Experimental  Station.  .  .  .176 

Darnell 149 

Dates 54,  81, 194 

Dew 29 

Degeneracy 76, 103 

Discovery  in  Agriculture 122 

Destruction  of  Insects 82 

Division  of  Farms 85 

Disease 78 

Dissemination  of  Weeds 169, 176 

Discrimination  by  Plants 104 

Dodder 24 

Drainage 27,  37 

Drought 70,  72, 105,  124 

Dry  Soils 78 

DrilUng  Seeds 90, 120, 127 

E. 

Edible  Plants 193 

Egg  Plant .  .  40,  74,  92,  95, 114, 153,  162, 171 

Elements 32 

Electric  Light Ill,  116 

Emulsion 82,  84 

Ensilage 173, 189, 192 

Ergot 98 

Errors  in  Seeds 85 

Essential  Fertilizers 64 

European  Vegetables 103 

Exports,  Agricultural 37,  38 

Experimental  Stations  .  .  .53, 152, 176,  192 

Exhaustive  Crops 80,105,134 

Exhalation 80,182 

F. 

Farms 35, 151, 159 

Farmyard 32, 127, 138, 173, 175 

Farm  Division 35 

Farm  Labor 33 


PAGE. 

Fertilizer  for  Lawns 21 

Fertility 34, 112,  IJl 

Fertilizers  .  .  47,  58,  64,  98, 108, 119, 137, 165 

Fences 75 

Fish  Manure 47 

Fibers 25,  37,  53,  97, 194 

Firming  the  Soil 27,  72,  94 

Fish  Culture 93 

Florida  Rock 31, 171 

Flax 37 

Fluctuation  in  Prices 39 

Flowers 73,120, 134 

Flavor 95 

Foliage 24,  34 

Forcing  Seeds 25, 137, 144, 170 

Forcing  Houses 102, 118, 190 

Food 69,  82,  83 

Fruit 1,  29,  37,  65,  105 

Frost 28,  29,  34 

Freshness  Retained 135 

Fumigation 118 

Fungicides 46,53,81,120,125 

Fungi,  12,  28,  46,  48,  49,  57,  58,  70,  73,  77,  78, 

81, 87,  92,  98,  99,  101,  105, 106,  113, 114, 119, 

122,  128,  165, 182 

G. 

Gardening,  17,  19,  30,  54,  57,  60,  65,  66,  80, 
84,  102, 133, 144, 148, 181 

Garden,  Plan  of 17 

Garlic 140 

Germination,  33,  44,  48,  58,  69,  80,  85,  88, 
103, 138,  142,  183, 188 

Germs,  Fungous 105 

Glasshouse 102, 112, 118, 190 

Glucose 34 

Gourds 3, 194 

Grains 2,  24, 100 

Grapes 100, 101 

Grass,  21,  22,  23,  47,  49,  50,  52,  58,  59,  78,  97, 
112, 129,  168,  174,  180 

Greenhouse  Cucumber 6 

Green  Manures  ...  16,  45,  58,  111,  122, 167 

Growth 98, 114,  180 

Grubs 78,  79,  87,  118,  177 

Guano,  Peruvian 32,  77,  89 

Gypsum 23 

H. 

Hammond's  Thrip  Juice 2.8 

Harlequin  Bug 74 

Hay 22,  23,  38,  116,  165 

Heat,  Artificial 27,33,112 

Hellebore 28 

Herbs 50 

Herd  Grass 22, 23 


198 


INDEX. 


PAGE. 

Heredity 60, 103, 116, 151 

Horse-radish 18,  146 

Horticultural  Society 54 

Hotbeds 25,  27, 100,  103, 101 

Humus 131 

Humidity 97, 100, 123 

Hybridization  ...    3,  89, 100, 102,  123, 195 
Hydrogen 31 


Implements 34, 162, 192 

Importations 37,  52,  185 

Influence  of  Parents 60, 103 

Inhalation 80,  182 

Inoculation  of  Soils 45,  68 

Inorganic  Parts 31 

Insecticides,  28,  34,  46, 56,  70,  71,  73,  82, 128, 

147 

Insectivorous  Bugs 115, 177 

Insects,  9,  13,  46,  57,  60,  68,  69,  70,  71,  74,  76, 

77,  78,  79,  82,  84,  91,  95,  96,  100, 101,  106, 

113,  116,  118, 119, 123,  124,  133,  139, 177 

Introduction  of  the  Tomato 115 

Ivy 103 

J. 

Japan  Clover 52 

Johnson  Grass 49 


Kainit 108 

Kerosene 82,  84 

King  Crabs 103 

Kohl  Rabi 40 

Labor  on  Farm 35 

Lands 68 

Land  Sales 37 

Land  Values 34 

Larvae 82 

Latitude 136, 194 

Lawn  ......  19,  21,  23,  111,  121,  159 

Leaf  Ratings 93 

Leek 140 

Legumes 2, 23,  58,  67 

Lettuce,  41,  54,  94, 110, 119, 123, 126, 128, 129, 

188, 189 

Lice 81, 113,  116, 118 

Licorice 104 

Light 33 

Lima  Beans 14,  47,  57 

Lime 28,  30,  31,  33,  46,  83, 172 

Linseed  Oil 160 

Liquid  Manure 33 

Live  Stock 39,  172, 192 

Loam 30 


PAGE. 

Lobos  Guano 77 

Locust 68, 168 

London  Purple 28 

Low  Prices 35 

M. 

Machine  Development 34, 162,  192 

Maggot 91 

Mangel  Wurzel 15, 182 

Manure,  15,  30,  31,  32,  33,  44,  47,  51,  53,  56, 
58,  69,  77,  SO,  83,  87,  88,  89,  101,  103, 108, 
110,  111,  127,  133, 139,  141, 164, 173, 175,  178, 

179 
Market  Garden,  18, 19,  60,  65,  66,  69, 185, 190 

Marl 107 

Maturity  of  Fruits 105 

Maturity  of  Peas 150 

Maturity  of  Vegetables 183 

Measuring  Land 174 

Melon,  9,  48,  49,  56,  73,  82,  87, 113, 118, 159, 

161 

Mildew 48,87 

Millet 91 

Mining  Flies 133 

Mint     187 

Moisture 97, 100,  123 

Molasses 187 

Mold 28,  48,  78,  81, 119,  165 

Moles 135 

Moon 33,  57,  98, 103 

Moss 104 

Mule  Plants 102 

Mushroom 43, 114 

Mustard 92 

N. 

Nitrate  of  Soda 53,  75, 113 

Nitrogen    .  .  31,  50,  69,  83, 138,  166,  171,  178 

Nitrogenous  Manures 170 

Nomenclature ,  .  51, 74 

Nutmeg  Melons 7 

Nutrition 69, 176 

Nuts 

O. 

Oats 73, 108 

Oats,  Hay 47 

Oats,  Product 38 

Offsets 2 

OUs,  Vegetable 133, 160 

Okra 114,180 

Old  Seeds 44, 87 

Onions,  43,  56,  73,  84,  86,  89,  90,  91,  91,  99, 
105, 106, 127, 130, 131,  132,  139,  140,  160,  168, 

184 

Onion  Sets 43,  46,  71,  75 

Orchid  Grass 22 


INDEX. 


199 


PAGE. 

Organic  Constituents 31 

Original  Types 189 

Origin  of  Plants 47,  189 

Over-manuring 51 

Oxygen 31 


P. 


Parasites 100, 105 

Parental  Influence 103, 151 

Paris  Green 28,  34,  56,  70,  73,  78,  82 

Parsnip 117 

Pasturage  Grass 21, 59 

Pea  Bug 68, 70 

Peach,  Yellow 52 

Peanuts 170 

Pearl  Sets 94 

Peas,  3,  13,  14,  15,  45,  58,  61,  73,  76,  78,  87, 99, 
104,  107, 108,  119,  124,  129,  142,  149, 150 

Peas,  Cow 2,  &8,  67,  76 

Peat 30,  128, 131 

Pedigree  Seeds 151 

Peppers 184 

Perennial  Beans 57 

Periods 54, 85,  88, 181 

Permanent  Pasture 21 

Persian  Insect  Powder 28 

Perspiration 103 

Peruvian  Guano 32,  77,  89 

Phonograph  Pea 124 

Phosphate 31,  32,  83,  87, 179 

Phosphoric  Acid 129,  130, 171 

Phylloxera 100, 101 

Pickles 60, 61 

Pigs 161 

Plant  Adaptability 194 

Plant  Constituents     31 

PlantFood 69,176 

Plant  Origin 47 

Plants  to  Acre 133 

Plow 36,79,121,174 

Poison 78,  105, 183 

Poisoned  Soils 165 

Pole  Beans 56 

Pollen 3,  80, 117, 136, 137, 143, 179 

Potash 31,  50,  83,  87 

Potatoes,  4,  38,  48,  52,  62,  79,  81,  88,  102,  104, 
108, 121, 123, 129, 132, 140,  175,  179, 185, 186, 

195 

Potato  Seed 4 

Prescription  Grass 60 

Preservation  of  Seed 113 

Profits 67,  69 

Puddling 110 

Pulverizing  Soil 174 

Pumpkin 54, 186 

Pungent  Vegetables Ill 


Q.  PAGE. 

Quarantining  Plants 69 

R. 

Radiation 29 

Radish      .  10,  71,  74,  88,  89, 107, 116, 122,  148 

Railroads 34 

Ramie 25 

Rape 137 

Receipts,  Cooking 154 

Recuperation Ill 

Red  Top  Grass 22 

Resin 77 

Resistant  Grasses 168 

Restorative  Crops 178 

Rhode  Island  Bent  Grass 22 

Rhubarb 72 

Roads 128 

Rolling 175 

Roots • ...  18, 134,  161,  172, 173 

Rotation 30,  166, 182 

Runners 14, 142 

Rust 14,  70,  81 

Ruta  Baga 86, 172 

Rye 38,  78, 130 

S. 
Sap 27 

Sales  of  Land 37 

Salads 39 

Salt 46,  54,  171 

Sand  Grass 47 

Salting  Cucumbers 60 

Sand 70, 101 

Savoy 75, 171 

Scarlet  Clover 23 

Scientific  Agriculture  ...  90, 176, 187, 193 

Seeds,  Forcing 25 

Sex 53,  60,  91,  103, 151, 180 

Seeding 54,  90, 120, 127, 181 

Seasons 54,  57,  85,  88 

Selling 105 

Seeds,  54,  80,  84, 107,  113,  123, 132, 135,  137, 
143,  144, 146, 149, 151, 152,  159, 160,  162, 181 

Selection 116 

Sensation 121 

Seed  Control 180 

Shipments  of  Fruit 29 

Shamrock 135 

Shallots 140, 168 

Sick  Soils 165, 167 

Silos 173,189,192 

Slugshot 28 

Smut 73,  98,  99,  101 

Snow 29 

Soil,  30,  45,  58,  68,  78,   105,  111,   112,  184, 

142,  167, 174, 177,  180 

Soda 31,  75 


200 


INDEX. 


PAGE. 

Soluble  Phosphate 32 

Soil  Inoculation 45,68 

Soda  Nitrate 53,  75, 113 

Sorghum 104, 109,  175 

Soiling 126 

Sorrel  127 

Sowing  Seeds 144 

Spinach 10,15,53,75,110,171 

Sports 50,  60, 122, 189 

Spraying 53,  81, 125 

Squash     ...  51,  54,  68,  81,  82,  123, 124,  186 

Storage  Corn 17 

Stable  Manure 30, 141 

Steam  Plowing 36 

Stations,  Experimental .  .  90, 176, 187, 193, 

Starch 80, 176 

String  Beans 57 

Sugar  Beets 15,  61 

Sulphuric  Acid •. 32 

Sun 33, 102, 106 

Subsoiling 35 

Superstitions.  ...  29,  33,  37,  57,  76,  98,  103 

Sugar 34,  37,  111,  162, 170, 172, 187 

Sunhouses 102 

Sunburn 106, 130 

Sugar  Cane 108, 114, 162 

Sunflower 113 

Sweet  Potatoes 4, 62, 179 

Sweet  Peas 73 

Swedes 126,  164 

T. 

Tariff. 167 

Tassel  of  Corn 141 

Texas  Blue  Grass 49 

Tennis  Court 128 

Testing  Seeds  .  .  44,  56, 133, 137, 152, 163, 184 

Thinning 85 

Tillage 63 

Tobacco 38,  55,  92, 160 

Toads 48 

Top  Onions 56,  71,  86 

Tobacco  Soils 55 

Tomatoes,  10,  50,  51,  54,  62,  77,  95, 102,  107, 

108,  109,  115,  119, 130,  170,  195 

Trifolium  Incarnatum  .  .  ....   23 

Transplanting 76,  100, 110, 144 


PAGE. 

Trees 152 

Trial  Grounds 53,  152,  192 

Tubers 2.  80 

Turnip,  17,  56,  72,  79,  81,  99,  107,  110,  126, 
127,  135,  145,  164,  172,  178, 185 

Types 60, 189 

Types,  Original 189 

U, 

Unripe  Seeds 73,  78 

UnvitalSeed 85,117 

V. 

Values  of  Turnips 185 

Variability 50,  60, 163, 189 

Vegetable  Analysis 64 

Vegetables.  .  .  1,  2,  62,  65, 103, 119, 123, 188 

Vegetable  Garden 17, 19, 188 

Vegetable  Mold  ...  28,  48,  78,  81, 119,  165 

Vegetable  Products 31 

Vegetable  Oils 133 

Vegetation 33 

Vitality,  17,  44,  56, 69, 73,  80,  93, 133, 137, 162, 

163,  184 
Vine  Seeds 159 

W. 

Watermelon,  7,  9,  53,  89,  99,  110,  126, 129, 
138,  139, 147 

Water 29, 104 

Wax  Beans 46 

Warranted  Seeds 162 

Washed  Lands 68 

Wash,  Resin 77 

Water  Cress 143 

Weevil 13,70,  71,  96 

Weeds,  15,  23,  48,  91,  96, 110,  111,  124. 128, 
169, 176, 177 

Web  Worm 106, 139 

Weights 135, 181 

Wheat 2,  3,  38,  48,  86,  97, 132, 166 

White  Grub 79 

Wild  Potatoes 4 

Wintering  Roots 18 

Wood  Ashes 30, 130, 175 

Worms 51,  88,  106,  183 

Wire  Grass 49,  52,112, 174 


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